CHAPTER VI

THEOSOPHY RUDOLF STEINER
THE superabnormal psychical and physical phenomena which we have so far reviewed form to-day the field of research for the initial stage of parapsychology, the newest branch of philosophy. The beginnings of these investi- gations not yet recognized by many of us as an independent scientific branch correspond roughly to the beginnings of hypnotic research, a further point of resemblance consisting in the fact that though inaugurated some decades ago, they were forgotten later, only to be revived once again towards the end of the last century.
Just as the phenomena of hypnotism are prime- val and are to be found right through history down to the present day, so, too, are the supernormal phenomena with which we are concerned in this book, even if we are still unable to distinguish between truth and fiction with regard to the traditions about them in history. To make this distinction will only be possible when we are on a firmer footing all round than is the case at present. It is certainly probable that, ten years hence, we may look upon much in history 9 129
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particularly in the history of religion with very different eyes, though even so, there will be quite enough errors, fraud and superstition left. Parapsychic phenomena have at all times served as the starting point for an immense amount of premature metaphysics about the soul. The first and easiest interpretation of many of the phenomena is the spiritistic. It consists in the assumption that it is not the psyche of the medium which develops supernormal faculties, but that departed spirits establish themselves in the organism of the medium, manifesting their presence through it, and even substracting organic substance from the medium, in order to be reincarnated or materialized. This spiritistic conception which the latest observations of materializations have rendered so extremely im- probable makes so great an appeal to the naive observer, that it has existed ever since para- psychic phenomena became known, though the same significance was not always attached to it. The last great upheaval started towards the middle of the last century, when so-called " table-turning " came over from America. This was the birth of modern Spiritism, which soon spread over the whole world, and even to-day has its circle of adherents everywhere. But as every new wave of thought whether high or low sooner or later loses its native force, so, too, spiritism saw its strength wane.
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As a matter of fact, spiritism to-day is no longer the most modern form of occultism. The strong religious tendency of the present day working on occultism has produced a new move- ment, which in contradistinction to Occultism shows a decided religious bias, namely that of Theosophy. In theosophy spiritism has to a certain degree been merged, for spiritism has no tenets which Theosophy does not recognize. Theosophy, however, goes beyond spiritism, accepting second sight, telepathy, visions of spirits and materializations as of ordinary, every- day occurrences manifestations of a lower grade, which, indeed, it treats as real facts, but no longer as of primary importance.
Theosophy desires to offer more. Its aim is to be able to unveil those mysteries of the universe into which spiritism dared not probe. Theo- sophy believes it will be able to make the higher knowledge, by which time and space cease to exist, accessible to all. Theosophy considers itself as a sort of godhead, above all philosophic thought, which is but a preliminary step, and which it contemplates from a higher angle like Hegel when he, from the philosophic point of view, looked down on mere rational discursive thought. Theosophy believes itself to possess a more advanced knowledge, though despite this, it professes no close relationship with traditional religious beliefs which depend
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upon revelation. It is much more like a religion in its initial stages than like a creed, which has existed for ages and already follows a steady course. For long confined to a comparatively small, exclusive circle of adherents, it has grown considerably of late years, particularly since the German revolution, as is indicated by the con- siderable increase in theosophic publications.
Theosophy is not a spiritual movement of a kind peculiar to the present day. In earlier epochs, similar movements existed which sought for loftier religious understanding, beyond the limits of philosophy and traditional religion. Throughout the Middle Ages this tendency lay hidden beneath the religious life. It was known as Mysticism. It held that an unmediated elevation of the soul to God is possible, which would lead to the unification of the human personality with the Divine Being, to a unto mystica or deificatio, or as German mysticism terms it, a " Vergottung." As compared with this older form of Theosophy, which still lives on in Catholicism to this day, modern Theosophy emphasizes the intellectual side. It is based on knowledge although inner religious depths are not lacking in it either.
The whole movement originated in India and England, and even to-day the English Theo- sophical tendency is the dominant one. At its head stood the Russian Blavatsky, possibly herself
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a medium, though at the same time an extremely cunning impostor and as fascinating a personality as only a hysterical Russian of that class can be. The report upon her by the psychologist Hodgson, who was deputed to make investigations on behalf of the Society for Psychical Research, was as unfavourable to her as it could be.
At the present day also, as at its origin, English Theosophy is dominated by the mind of a woman, that of Mrs. Annie Besant. Morally, she must be considered much higher than her predecessor, who at one and the same time seems to have fulfilled the functions of Russian political agent, and mediatress of the higher revelations. Mrs. Besant is no impostor, and makes no pretensions to an exalted position among her fellows as did Mme. Blavatsky. She must be an imposing personality, and not only as a public speaker. According to her own confession to James, years ago, she is characterized by extreme diffidence in personal intercourse, though recklessly brave in public, but Keyserlinck, who visited her in India, was quite differently impressed. " Of one thing I am convinced," he writes : " this woman controls her person from a centre in a way that I have seldom seen equalled. . . . Mrs. Besant has her abilities, sensations, will-power, so in hand, that she appears capable of greater efforts than those who are more highly gifted." The literary productions of Annie Besant have
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nothing distinguished about them. To a scienti- fically inclined reader her books are quite unpalat- able. As a critic once put it : " Should an exhibition ever be held of the malformations of human thought, there would be a rush to be the first to get her books for it."
The centre of English Theosophy must be looked for in India, where the speculations of the old Indian Theosophy are deliberately renewed. The reader is overwhelmed in Annie Besant's books by a mass of Indian expressions, and doubtless the effect on half-educated people is often to create a curious haziness of mind, an atmosphere of mystery, full of wondrous thoughts, favourable to any kind of auto-suggestion. Not only do the ideas of English Theosophy emanate from India, but the close relationship with that country is proclaimed by the fact that the headquarters of the movement is in India itself, in Adyar, where Mme. Blavatsky founded her Indian Theosophist Society in 1875. Annie Besant is now its president, and has made India her permanent home for many years past. The fusion of race and the ideal of indiscriminate brotherly love have in this movement not been confined to mere expression, and the British members of the Society are even in sympathy with the Indian national movement. Mrs. Besant took a leading part in the last Indian National Congress, and the Anglo-Indian authorities have
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been faced with difficulties as a direct consequence of her action.
The Theosophical movement has extended from England to Germany, and Annie Besant herself came over to give a series of lectures. Some of her voluminous writings as well as those of her disciple Leadbeater have been translated. The prophet-in-chief of German Theosophy to-day, however, is Rudolf Steiner of Stuttgart. He is the son of a small railway official, and was born in Hungary in 1861. Even now, he still feels himself to be the " son of the proletariate," and the " proletarian " seems to him the greatest historical reality of the present, whose mission it is to lead humanity on to a higher level. I once heard him lecture on state reform : " The Three Limbs of the Social Organism." He is a tall, dark person, with an intelligent expression. He enlarged for two or three hours, in a voice of remarkable carrying power, on very few ideas ; or, rather, he actually bellowed as though he meant to drown any possible contradiction. His lecture was extremely monotonous, and at the same time very vague, a typical German revolu- tionary programme of reform. The enigma as to the why and wherefore of his hold on his following, and how it is that hundreds, nay, thousands, believe in him, is still unsolved. Neither is it easy to understand how it is that a group of women are said to have pursued him from
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place to place at that time, in order to hear him speak again and again.
The fundamental idea of Theosophy is ex- pressed in the belief that the world of our senses does not represent the whole of reality ; but that higher spheres exist, and that mankind is enabled to gain insight into this higher world by reason of second sight or " clairvoyance." That which to us is the world forms but a small section of the actual universe of being.
The world is not alone in possessing unknown spheres and gradations ; what is true of the world is true also of mankind. This new interpretation of man's constitution is considered by Steiner to be of such importance that he calls his whole train of thought Anthroposophy instead of Theosophy. This change of name synchronizes with a slight change of emphasis from the religious to the intellectual sphere. Steiner repudiates the dominant conception that man is composed of two parts : the body and the soul. He admits of no less than four component parts. Over and above the physical body, which is made of the same consistent parts as the inanimate world, is (2) the " living or aetheric body," which is practically represented in neovitalitism, by entelechy, psychoid, vital factor or the like. The word " aether" (body) has no connexion with the "aether" of physics. The (3) third " member of the human being " is the " sensitive
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or astral body," and transmits suffering and desire, joy, lust, passion, etc. The (4) fourth factor, mankind's own peculiar prerogative, is the " ego," the " body of the ego," where, again, the word " body " is not to be taken literally. Plato would have called it " reason " instead. The sensitive body is said to be formed in the shape of a " longish egg," in which both the physical and setheric bodies are embedded ! It ranges over them in every direction like a " form of light:" We meet here correct opinions strangely transformed and intermingled with phantastic ones. The semi-materialism is charac- teristic, for though Steiner is at pains to speak of " body," he is still quite aware that he is employing a false term.
The belief held by all Theosophists in reincar- nation is of the greatest significance. The idea of the transmigration of the soul is alien to the European spiritual world with but few excep- tions Pythagoras, for instance. It has never gained ground in Europe to any great extent. This idea, too, originated in India, like all other fundamental Theosophist teachings, and there, for thousands of years, it has formed the main part of all religions. It is a thought which, if taken in a deeper sense, can markedly increase the sense of responsibility in man by the belief that his future fate is dependent on his present life. It also confers a strange peace of mind onjsome
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individuals, when combined with other beliefs. When life is regarded as lasting for a very long time, time ceases to be precious ; there is no necessity for a hurry ; in future existences there will be opportunity for everything now denied.
The whole development of culture is visualized by Steiner as dependent on the ever-increasing influence of the ego on the remaining parts of man. Indeed the secret teaching of Theosophy consists in an ever greater control 'of the ego over those parts. Man becomes master of his charac- ter, his passions, and, at the highest stage, even of his physical body. He controls the circulation of the blood, as well as his pulse. In this it is easy to recognize the influence of the ancient Indian Theosophy in which, on reaching the highest stage of development, man attains mastery over his organic functions.
But this is not yet the heart of the new secret teachings. The final aim is the achievement of a higher knowledge that of so-called " second sight," the contemplative observation of all the profundities of reality. All mankind can attain this understanding, when, through unceasing mediation, they release those higher faculties which lie dormant within them. To the " seer " nothing would remain hidden.
It is amazing in the extreme to hear of the results attained by means of the higher mental
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faculties, which, though dormant in most, appear thoroughly awakened in Steiner. We learn of the most tanheard-of things concerning the happenings of the universe. What are all the attainments of geology and astronomy in com- parison to the visions of the Theosophists ? The past of the solar system and of the earth are relentlessly unveiled to us. We hear of new ages of which no one knew anything. We learn how mankind was formed in the " lemuric " period on that continent which existed between Australia and India. Further, Steiner alludes to powerful spirits who wandered about earth before mankind existed, and he knows of whole cycles of culture which existed in prehistoric times. All Plato's descriptions of Atlanta read like a dry and harmless report when compared to Steiner 's clairvoyant visions. Even Helene Smith's Martian and ultra-Martian apparitions pale before them. Every now and then are interspersed glimpses of angelic figures, higher spirits, which were active in the earlier stages of the solar system. Even a pre-historic Christ is not missing from the cosmic birth of the world, when earth and sun parted. This Christ, or Sun-Man, is said to have instructed seven great teachers the teachers of the ancient Indies, though these ancient Indies must not be con- founded with the present geographical conception of India. There is said to have been a " higher "
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pre-historic India. But in that case, one asks in vain why it is still called India ?
Even Schilling's later reckless Theosophical and cosmogonic speculations are child's play in comparison to Steiner's "inspirations," which might better be thought to bear an analogy to the philosophy of later classical times. In my opinion, however, even this comparison is too pale. I can find nothing better to compare than the Apocalyptic Scriptures the Revelations of St. John or, better still, the apocalyptic visions of David of Lazareth. True it is that Steiner lacks the touch of power which is found in them, but like them he sweeps grandiosely above all the probabilities, and like them deals with the milliards of years, aeons and super-epochs. The question arises if the analogy be pursued is Steiner then also mentally deranged ? The contents of certain of his writings certainly seem to suggest this. Or how otherwise can these emanations of the spirit be understood ? It must be admitted as an " extenuating circum- stance " that Steiner is not unique in this regard. One need only examine the recent publications in German of the works of Annie Besant, and of her disciple, 'Leadbeater. Here, too, allusions are found to whole series of realities of which the rest of us are entirely unaware; and in another book an attempt is made to unravel the secrets of the construction of the atoms by means of clairvoyance.
THEOSOPHY RUDOLF STEINER 14,1
Who will take the trouble to compare all these conflicting revelations ? I fear they would prove as full of contradictions as the scriptural Apo- crypha, though this fact would cause no dis- couragement to the Theosophists. They would merely say that some of the revelations were genuine others only pseudo-revelations. Even if they were not full of contradictions, that would not prove them objective ; it would still be simpler to assume that they are relatively interdependent. ' The point so much against them is that they fail to show any interconnexion with the ordinary sciences. And yet any claim to objectivity which they might have must at least entail some sort of connecting link with established knowledge. A " clairvoyant " de- scription of prehistoric facts, if genuine, should by rights have some connexion with prehistoric science, and reveal to persons interested in early history steps and stages of development which would bring to light the interconnexion of historically recorded facts. In short, it would do what genius does. We find nothing of all this in Steiner's conceptions. Further, the reader who is versed in psychology feels the absence of detailed descriptions of the nature of this process of revelation. We are overwhelmed by a mass of assertion mere assertion nothing else. And when the question is raised : Will the student of Theosophy himself reach the stage of
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personal inspiration, the answer is bewildering, for the reader is told that he is on the threshold already of spiritual enlightenment as soon as he begins to hear and understand Steiner's revela- tions. From the time when these revelations are received and believed, we are told that we have part in them and have ourselves received them. This is surely a dubious assertion, and might even be regarded as hallucination ; for Steiner must surely know the great difference between mere belief in something and an act of higher intuition.
Steiner writes quite differently when he is on neutral ground. For instance, his essays on the earlier philosophers are thorough and impressive. We should expect him, therefore, to show a keener appreciation of the value of some psycho- logical analysis of the insight which he claims to possess.
The path to second sight is reached by way of strange exercises of mental concentration exercitia spiritualia which are directly derived from the Indian school of spiritual training. In the first place, Steiner advocates a contemplative study of certain flower-like drawings. These are alleged to have a highly symbolical significance. Thus a black cross is the symbol of the baser passions and lusts ; therefore, during meditation seven red roses are placed in the centre of a black cross to denote passions and lusts under
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control. After continued contemplative exer- cises, the student is stated gradually to get outside his own ego and to become conscious of the higher spiritual world. Unfortunately, records in literature of the effect of such con- templation and of its gradual increasing power are extremely rare. It is obviously a question of generating auto-hypnotic conditions, which create a favourable basis for auto-suggestions of every description. The suspicion arises, that the student of Thedsophy experiences nothing be- yond an auto-suggestive strengthening of his faith in his Master and possibly a few correspond- ing hallucinations. But nothing much is achieved by such a conclusion. According to numerous reports from India, there can be no doubt that a protraction of such contemplative exercises has a peculiarly strengthening effect on the human mind. We are continually reminded of the fact that the Indian Yogi are renowned for their complete control over their psyche. Keyserlinck is also of opinion that Mrs. Annie Besant's self-mastery is attributable to her Yogi exercises. And surely the deep satisfaction which has been attained by many adherents of the Theosophical movement, and which I am sure exists from the statements which they themselves have made to me, is attributable to these con- templations. A closer study of the whole subject has become a pressing duty, and may have
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important results for the self-education of mature minds.
A deeper study of these conditions of spiritual concentration is, however, hardly possible in Europe. I am almost inclined to believe that all that has been achieved by exercises in con- centration as practised in Europe has reached only to the fringe of what has been done in India. The whole mind of the European is far too active and too engrossed with worldly affairs. The European is not able to devote himself to spiritual exercises in the way the Indian can.
The study of Indian self-absorption must be carried out in India itself. That is why it is of such great parapsychical importance, for, if we are to believe the accounts of travellers to that land, it represents a method which systematically obtains complete mastery over those parts of the organism which are not subjected to the conscious will, as well as also furthering mediumistic faculties. European mediumship is the gift of chance certain persons evince abnormal para- psychic phenomena, we know not how or when. In India the problem of the methodical pro- duction of such faculties has apparently been solved for centuries. This assertion might have been ignored so long as there was any question of the reality of the parapsychic phenomena. To-day, when doubt is no longer possible, the Indian reports have also become of interest to
THEOSOPHY RUDOLF STEINER 145
us. Whatever the outcome, they deserve to be investigated, even at the risk that the mystery may remain unsolved.
Indian Theosophy has this in common with European Theosophy : the majority of its adherents are believers only very few have real knowledge. " The majority of those that I have talked to," said Keyserlinck, " believe only, though a few are convinced that they also know, and report to me as naturally and calmly about unheard-of events, as a naturalist on his latest discovery."
All that we have so far heard about Steiner and his teachings does not, however, solve the problem of his ever-increasing influence even on many people who are of a superior moral character. It is evident that these weird occult teachings, which promise an insight yet undreamed of, must have a mysterious attraction for many. But the deeper satisfaction found by so many in Theo- sophy is surely attributable to the high moral tendency which permeates Steiner's teachings (though it easily is lost sight of by persons who stand outside Theosophy in the face of his strange metaphysical teachings) ; which pervades his whole theories ; and which brings Theosophy into closer relationship with Christianity than seems apparent at first sight. The real reason for Steiner's great influence, therefore, lies in the higher values interspersed in his metaphysics
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which ensure him respect, confused though his speculations seem. To this must be added the fact that Steiner rejects certain forms of older Christianity, e.g. its contempt for health and strength which are alien to the modern mind. In this, again, he concurs with Indian views, by which Yogism and the highest condition of concentration are confined to those in perfect mental and physical health. Steiner's writings insist on inner mental health, and he requires this condition from the students' of Theosophy. In far-seeing guise, Theosophists believe that a religious conception of life is essential to the healthy life of the soul. Work and devotion are for them the pivots of life.
But all this does not prevent the rest of Steiner's writings from being extraordinarily confused and muddled quite apart from the fact that little reliance can be placed on his ter- minology and expressions. He does not consider it necessary to confine himself to the use of words in their ordinary sense and what is still worse, his own terms are themselves hopelessly jumbled together.
ADDITIONAL REMARKS
Since the first edition of this book was pub- lished, the Theosophical movement has spread still further. Its claims are greater than ever, and the number of its opponents is also increasing.
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I have avoided taking any part in the platform campaign about it. The effort to find the truth, in which I should like to help, will not be for- warded it will rather be hindered by |, the controversies of public discussion. As I * am told, Steiner in his new form of polemics has attacked me personally, but I do not know how or when and I shall take care not to be tempted to answer insult with insult.
The two main points, which most urgently ought to be cleared up, are first as to the nature of Steiner 5 s so-called " second sight " (Hell- sehen), and secondly as to the question (which is not without connexion with the first) how meditation is practised in the inner anthropo- sophical circles, and how in Steiner's own case it first came to fulfilment, for Steiner (as is known) comes from the school of Mrs. Besant a fact which anthroposophical circles generally rather markedly avoid mentioning, as they prefer to regard Steiner as a man who has never been spiritually indebted to any other.
It is further worth noting that the expression " second sight " is used by Steiner in an unusually wide sense. Generally the word is used to denote the capacity of perceiving a thing although the normal condition of sight are not present, that is although no light waves from the thing can reach the eye because the thing is too far away or hidden somewhere. Steiner, however, means
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by " second sight " the pretended higher functions of the soul which are dependent on the so-called astral body, through which the Theosophist is able to read the " Akasha Record," that is to see the impressions which are retained by a higher actuality of all the events of our homely earth. Yet all this must, he says, be treated merely as a use of metaphors, both when we speak of " impressions " or of " reading " them. If this is so, it would be better not to use the word " second sight " at all But we have to reconcile ourselves as best we can to Steiner's habit, not of coining new words which could be used in a definite and recognizable sense, but of taking old words and using them in a new and altered meaning.
The deciding question, with which his whole standpoint stands or falls, is the question whether "second sight," in Steiner's sense, is a fact which actually occurs or not, and whether he himself possesses it. If this is answered, then the question of the existence of the Akasha Record or at least, the question whether it is capable of being proved to exist will also be settled.
The obvious idea of making experiments in the ordinary sense of the word with the faculty of second sight leads to no result, since the reading of the Akasha Record is not a second sight of the land which permits of experiments. The higher degree of second sight has got to be
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tested by itself. This test can naturally not be carried out by any proof of the truth of Steiner's deliverances on the subject of the early history of the sun's system or of mankind. We have no methods of verification which are not dependent upon the usual scientific considerations about the sun or mankind. We cannot help from the scientific point of view regarding most of his stories as bottomless imaginings, and the most that we can possibly do is perhaps to discuss one or two of them*, for instance, the question of the Atlantes, or of the Lemurians. To this Steiner retorts that our own scientific interpretations are merely uncertain hypotheses. A decision can therefore only be reached if Steiner is himself so kind as to help us ! He must give us informa- tion from the Akasha Record about past events, which we do not yet know, but which we should be able to verify with reasonable certainty by the use of the normal channels of knowledge.
Accordingly, I hereby challenge Steiner personally to give us an opportunity of verifying in this way his assertions about his superhuman capacities. And since according to views current in Theosophical circles, which Steiner also shares, as the mind rises to higher levels which are still levels common to clairvoyant faculties in the ordinary sense, it develops a power of getting free from the body as well as other capacities, it is desirable that the opportunity for verification
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should extend to the whole of the phenomena under consideration and especially to the capacity which Rittelmeyer maintains is possessed by Steiner of seeing the contents of other people's minds. Steiner is said to have already once put himself at the disposal of Kulpe in Munich for a psychological examination, but Kulpe unfortu- nately declined the task for want of time. I may, therefore, very naturally express the wish that he will again make the offer especially as he declares that he has himself a theoretical interest in psychology.
Some of Steiner's supporters have been very much offended because I said that according to Steiner, his followers share in his revelations as soon as they take his assertions to themselves and believe in them. It is (according to these sup- porters) characteristic of Steiner that he does not demand belief but only that we should follow his thoughts. On the other hand it should be noted that he expressly declares that the study of his revelations is itself a means of " reaching knowledge on one's own account," indeed, that it is indispensable thereto. " In all esoteric training such study acts as a preparation. If a man tries every other means and does not take to himself the teaching of his esoteric guide, he will not reach his goal." For this teaching is not mere words, but a " living force." This can only be described as meaning that the esoteric student
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has got blindly to trust himself to the truth of Steiner's revelations so that they may become his own living convictions.
Moreover, the requirement of humility and of the denial of the self naturally works in the same direction to produce a credulous acceptance of the doctrine.
Again, how did Steiner, or whoever was the first and original " clairvoyant/ 5 attain to his capacity of higher vision, if the study of his revelations is indispensable ? There must have been a time when revelations did not exist which could be studied. And we should like to know what is the actual result in the circles of Steiner's followers of the practice of concentration with a view to achieving " second sight." I have not yet been able to find out that any clairvoyant worth mention has arisen among all his numerous followers, some of whom are adepts of dis- tinguished ability.
I should further regard it as extraordinarily important to establish once for all, by a special investigation, how far the contents of Steiner's clairvoyant revelations correspond in detail with those of the English Theosophists, especially Mme. Blavatsky and Annie Besant. I have not so far being able to find leisure to make the com- parison and can only urge others to do so. Such a comparison is necessary for the purpose of explanation. The correspondences between the
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revelations go so far that after a renewed con- sideration of all the factors I no longer think it probable that we have to do with some mental derangement in Steiner's case. It seems much more probable that the principal cause is not madness, but merely ideas derived from Mme. Blavatsky. The delusion of madness and of suggestion cannot be at once distinguished. Both have this in common, that the person holding them does not hold them for logical reasons and with- stands and is unaffected by all arguments to the contrary. It is only by tracing them to their origin that we can decide definitely whether such delusions are due to madness or suggestion. I will hazard the conjecture provisionally that with anthroposophists the fundamental con- ceptions become implanted in the mind during states of meditation which are very like hypnotic states. That the motive power is suggestion seems very clear from the statements of Frohn- meyer of the school of Annie Besant, for he implies that both definite hypnotic suggestion as well as telepathy are employed. It is true that he means by this the employment of tele- pathic suggestion, and it is unfortunately true that of this there are so far very few properly recorded observed instances, although it seems true that it is a fact and, from the psychological standpoint, badly needs closer investigation, since it probably makes possible a not incon-
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siderable part (which has so far been ignored), of deceptive pseudo-mediumistic performances. The fact that in Mrs. Besant's following unquestioning mental obedience of the kind demanded by the Jesuits is required, makes it doubly probable that Steiner found his fundamental conceptions in this way. This, of course, does not exclude the possibility that he possesses parapsychological gifts, either by natural endowment or as the result of self-education by way of meditation. But if we are to believe that this is true, it is for him to furnish us~with proof.
CONCLUSION
THE SCOPE FOR NEW INVESTIGATIONS
WE have now concluded our investigation of some of the domains of modern Occultism. Many may be disillusioned who hoped to see the portals of the higher world, that of life after death, flung wide before them at last. This hope has not been fulfilled. The strange, impenetrable wall, which hinders us from casting a glimpse into the reality beyond the grave, will not permit itself to be opened, not even by means of the phenomena of Cross- correspondence. It is as though we are deliber- ately meant to be kept in the dark with regard to what awaits us. There are no proofs whatever which force us to the belief that there is any spirit responsible for the productions of medium - ship other than the spirit of the medium him or herself. No matter how high or low the pro- ductions of mediumship may be, they must still be ascribed to the medium, for the unconscious or somnambulistic productions of the mind may very well be above or below that of the conscious- ness. In the same way, however great may be the resemblance between the character of the
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THE SCOPE FOR NEW INVESTIGATIONS 155
mediumistic reproduction and the character of the individual alive or dead portrayed, mere like- ness cannot be taken to be a proof of identity. We know of no limits to the faculty of impersona- tion which some people possess. Lastly, a medium's knowledge of facts can never be taken as a conclusive proof of the presence of a dead person, for the statements made have in the first place to be verified, and if verification is possible, it is itself a proof that these facts can be ascer- tained by other means than the direct memory of the dead person. The same, too, applies to materializations. Spiritism, therefore, cannot be proved by incontrovertible reasons. On the other hand, neither can it be disproved by incontro- vertible reasons. A conclusion can only be arrived at, based on general impressions, which will be the more correct the less bias there is either of sympathy with or of antipathy to the fundamental idea of spiritism. And yet it is true that we cannot do otherwise than to see and judge of the spiritistic hypothesis by its rela- tionship to our general conception of the universe. In the absence of conclusive proof, we can neither accept nor reject it without inquiry into its consequences.
Although, then, we have to conclude that the main metaphysical expectation, which is closely connected with occultism, is proved to be fundamentally impracticable, the further scien-
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tific results are all the more important. Amid the waste matter of vulgar spiritism, most re- markable psychic and psychophysic phenomena of supernormal character have been discovered. We are now on new scientific ground. Many things are still veiled in clouds, vague, and only recognizable in outline ; others are still com- pletely hidden ; others, again, have been established with comparative certainty. It is no longer an open question whether we have firm ground under our feet with regard to these problems, or whether all is illusion, deception, and fraud. The assertions of eminent investiga- tors some among them scientists of world-wide renown are too numerous and too decided. All 1 who have gone in for a systematic study of the phenomena have arrived at a positive con- clusion to a greater or less degree. To ignore their combined testimony would be but unscien- tific, dogmatic prejudice. No other scientific attitude is possible than that of taking in hand the examination and verification of the results already obtained.
A criticism that goes so far as to refuse to make a closer investigation of facts which have been asserted, becomes pseudo-criticism, and no longer impartial, when the facts have been asserted by reliable observers. The attitude of a con- siderable number, particularly of the older pro-
1 Including A. Lehmann, Henning, and Desioir.
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fessors of philosophy and psychology, is strongly reminiscent of those Florentine savants who denied the astronomical discoveries of Galileo, and refused to look through the telescope for fear of being convinced. It is crassly untrue to assert that all clairvoyants and mediums refuse to submit themselves to scientific examination. The scientific superficiality and general lack of principle, which characterizes some authors when it becomes a question of the real facts, is alone responsible for such an assertion. Equally super- ficial, and probably only due to lack of knowledge of the literature upon the subject, is the state- ment by Hopp to the effect that science has no means of investigating the problem of telepathy, but must confine itself to the examination of such cases as chance may offer.
It is a test of the intellectual worth of a scientist if he is ready and willing to investigate problems which, if true, may open up wide issues, or if he retreats with diffidence from all that might bring with it in its train a revolutionary- change in his existing theories.
German research has in the first place to ascertain what has already been accomplished. It is now no longer admissible to regard the entire parapsychic problem as terra nova, on which no man's foot has stepped yet.
When Wundt declared that if parapsychology were justified there must be two worlds the
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first, that which exists in accordance with the laws of Galileo and of classic mechanics ; the second, that of the gnomes, rapping spirits and magnetic mediums, in which the laws which prevail in the first are not in use it must un- reservedly be admitted (apart from the language in which his idea is clothed) that this " second world " lacks that transparent and reliable structure which is possessed by organically dead nature, taken by itself. This is not only applic- able to parapsychic phenomena, but is equally true both of normal psychology and of organic physiology. Biology, also, is incapable of in- dicating in advance the progress of organic development. This unreliability is peculiar to all non-inorganic parts of reality, and it is very doubtful whether it should only be attributed, as it usually is, to the complication of the pheno- mena. Such an explanation is hardly true of mental phenomena, and does not very well apply at all to the vital factors. The reason really consists in the fact that there is no question here of a number of separate entities, and their connexion to each other, as in the case of the atoms which go to build up the elementary entities of the inorganic world. The mechanical conception of the universe, on which Wundt and all the other Parallelists base their philosophy, has been found to be fundamentally false. It is necessary to make a clean break with the mechani-
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cal conception, not only for the purposes of theory, but also for that of practical investigation, and no longer to shut one's eyes to the metapsychical complexity of the problems in which we are engaged.
There should soon be no lack of suitable mediums with whom to experiment. There are many indications that individuals with para- psychical constitutions are not so rare as is generally imagined, though it may be true that they are a little 'scarcer in Germany than among the English-speaking and Latin races. On the other hand, a whole number of mediumistically inclined individuals have been discovered recently. It is to be hoped that at least a proportion among them those of the greatest value from the point of view of the renewal of scientific investigation will place themselves at the disposal of a science which no longer need assume that it only has to do with fraud, and which is ready to investigate on critically objective lines. It is for this reason that I insist on the need for further investigation. One of these mediums, on whom v. Wasielewski and Tischner have made their chief experiments, does not even appear to base her work on the spiritistic theory, so that the tests in her case could be carried out in entire freedom from the spiritistic atmosphere.
It is greatly to be desired that we may soon have the luck to get physical mediums to place
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themselves at our disposal in the earlier stages of their development, so that they may be with- drawn from the influences of spiritism. It might then, perhaps, be possible to obtain parapsychic and paraphysical phenomena in a form which does not clothe itself in the spiritistic garb, and is thus divested of the distasteful atmosphere which surrounds such phenomena at present. The possibility exists, however, that the further development of these phenomena may be dependent on the necessity for the very favourable auto-suggestive influences which emanate from the spiritistic beliefs of the mediums. If this be, indeed, the case, we must needs resign ourselves to the acceptance of parapsychic manifestations in this strange guise.
A serious difficulty in investigation is the aversion manifested in spiritistic circles to scien- tific research. This circumstance is not only due to the indifferent and uninterested attitude hitherto adopted by science in Germany with reference to parapsychological problems, but is also caused by an instinctive fear that a closer investigation might prove the claims of the spiritistic interpretation to be unfounded. Mundus vult decipi. In the summer of 1919, one of my audience in Tubingen informed me of a writing medium who seemingly appeared to be capable of quite interesting phenomena, and he
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promised to put me into touch with this person a servant girl. His uncle, however, with whom the girl was in service, declined to allow a scien- tific investigation. I was not even permitted to obtain a glimpse of the voluminous automatic writings. Nothing could show more strongly how necessary it is that the medium's scientific interest should be trained, or that the mediumistic faculties of persons who have some scientific interest should be developed.
The proper 'attitude towards the spiritistic hypothesis can only be that of critical examina- tion. It is clear that this theory can only be regarded as proved when all the probabilities attendant on it are also proved. On the other hand, a refusal to associate with persons who accept the theory might lead to the exclusion of such investigators as Myers and James. The fact by itself, that anyone accepts the spiritistic theory must not however unsympathetic it may be to us lead us to condemn that person generally as unreliable so far as he is not shown to be guilty of unreliability by his manner of dealing with mere facts. This point of view should lead us to a modus vivendi with supporters of spiritism in Germany, just as a modus vivendi already exists in England.
|. A more minute analysis of parapsychic pheno- mena is the great need. To accomplish this the analytical methods of normal psychology must
iz
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be invoked in full measure. The number of fundamental psychological conceptions which the parapsychologists have hitherto used is far too small. I miss, above all, the distinction between acts of representation and acts of thought ; to say nothing of the omission of the analysis of parapsychic acts of thought. How, for instance, does a medium distinguish psychometric or telepathic thoughts from his " own " normal ideas ? Or does he not make any distinction ? Neither do the reports show clearly as a general rule whether the visions of the mediums, with which we are dealing, are, in their nature, hallucinations or only representations. In short, analysis is still in its infancy. What is really required is Parapsychologic Experiments com- bined with introspection. In all cases where parapsychic phenomena occur without the more profound trance conditions, this cannot offer very great difficulties. Tests must also be made with mediums in a state resembling hypnotic trance. Attempts must be made, where possible, to persuade them to practise introspection, and they must be trained in it. Above all, Vogt's method of artificially narrowing the consciousness must be applied, in order to obtain the greatest number of statements based on retrospection. In short, all possible means must be employed. In parapsychology, all efforts must increas- ingly be centred on the attainment of greater
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objectivity in methods. The ideal would be to register mechanically the phenomena throughout their whole development, so that subsequent study in complete leisure might be possible. Too often the outward conditions in which the sittings take place make observation very difficult.
In this way only will the sceptic be convinced and compelled to accept the objective proofs afforded by photography and the registering apparatus. The extensive use which Schrenck- Notzing made of photography, the several exposures taken from different angles at once, and the use of stereoscopy mark a considerable advance in methods. But it would be desirable to have more cinematographic exposures. A complete cinematographic record of the sittings would have the advantage of determining later what had or had not taken place. 1 We should often like to know a good deal that an author does not tell us in so many words, though undoubtedly, he might have done so. For instance, A. Lehmann when referring to the experiments of Zoellner, asks with regard to the cords used during the sitting, whether Slade had had no opportunity of annexing one of them. Only an uninterrupted cinematographic film taken of the medium to include even the time outside the
1 This could best be determined by means of stereoscopic cinematography. An apparatus of that kind should not be hard to construct.
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sittings themselves could ensure a definite answer though this is, of course, impracticable by reason of the expense.
Photography with ordinary light is, unfortu- nately, of no avail, when, as in the case of Eusapia, the medium forbids the use of it, or when light impedes or destroys the mediumistic phenomena. In the future, therefore, it would be advisable to take photographs with invisible ultra-violet lights ; though it is, of course, impossible to predict whether the mediumistic phenomena will be able to stand these rays. The attempt, however, should be made. Attempts should also be made to keep the limbs of the medium under constant control, by means of numerous stereoscopic X-ray exposures. Should, however, it be found that all these rays act destructively on the mediumistic phenomena, it will be im- possible in many cases to prove the objective existence of the phenomena with the present means at our disposal. We should then have definitely to content ourselves with the reports of witnesses based on the observations made during the sittings by the ordinary five senses.
We cannot eliminate altogether the importance of the question of the good faith of the person who makes the experiments. We must accept his word that the photographic exposures were in order; that the instruments were properly installed, and that the data on the registering
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apparatus tally with the curves published and have not been faked, etc.
A most interesting connexion exists between the supernormal phenomena and the spiritual worth taken on the whole of the life of a given individual. Many cases have been cited in both the Indian and Christian history of religion which, if true, would tend to prove that once a certain height of spiritual develop- ment is reached, parapsychic and paraphysio- logical phenomena are bound to follow as a matter of course. The biographies of the Indian and Christian saints are full of such happenings ; they are recorded also of Christ and his Apostles in the New Testament ; and the Catholic Church in consequence make canonization abso- lutely dependent on the testimony that such " miracles " have actually taken place. We are not yet in the position to be able to take a satis- factorily reasoned position on the question of the reality of these miracles. The whole question is closely interwoven with the other namely to what extent parapsychic phenomena are determined by the mode of life of the individual concerned. With regard to the outstanding mediums of modern occultism, such as Helene Smith, Mrs. Piper, Eusapia Palladino, etc., it is impossible to establish any superiority of mind which would confer on them a reputation for " saintliness." But we must not lose sight of
16 OCCULTISM AND MODERN SCIENCE
the fact that in the case of these mediums we are concerned with individuals who were born so to speak, with a parapsychically endowed personality.
The question of the connexion between para- psychic faculties and the mode of life of an individual, can only at the present time be solved in India, for modern Europe relegates ascetic " saints " to the confines of monastery or convent, where they are beyond the reach of scientific investigation. 1
The consideration of the Indian sphere is of further urgent necessity because of the many reports with regard to the manifestations of the mediums of that country. Unfortunately these reports so far have no claim to be considered as other than the usual travellers' tales, and, there- fore, are not of sufficient value to be used as material for psychology. Further, it is not at all easy to get copies of them, and as they are mostly compiled in the English language, they mostly cannot be found at all in German libraries. Despite the urgent necessity we are still without any really scientific investigation of the Indian ascetics, fakirs, and other abnormal personalities. It is hard to understand, and regrettable in the extreme, that the Society for Psychical Research, which seems to have a special call to take the lead in this direction, has not yet
1 Although even to-day, supernormal manifeitations have been aicribcd to them there.
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made any effort to do so. It is obvious that the expenses entailed by a psychological expedition of such description would be considerable, but even so, much less than those of any other ex- pedition, even on a modest scale, connected with natural science. It is no less astonishing that Indian doctors have not yet devoted themselves to the study of these problems. As universities exist in India, we might naturally have expected them to do so. Or can it be that such investiga- tions lie hidden in Indian periodicals ? It must not be forgotten that all such investigators are, in the first instance, bound to meet with serious obstacles in getting into touch with the persons concerned. The reports of travellers often record the distrust and reserve evinced by such persons in the presence of Europeans, and their violent opposition to any prying into their secrets. Should these obstacles prove unsurmountable, it would be as well if the work were undertaken by natives who have had the benefit of a European education, and it would appear that there is no time to be lost in this respect. There is no doubt that the progress of European civilization on the one hand, and the growth of the Young India propaganda on the other, must needs diminish these manifestations to an ever greater degree, and make them of ever rarer occurrence. It gives one food for reflection when one learns that Pierre Loti, who travelled to India in order
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to study the occult and theosophical under- world and its secrets on the spot, returned to Europe with his object unachieved, and without having made any discovery of importance. But despite this, it is not possible to doubt the existence of mediums and occult circles in India, well worthy of study by philosopher and psycholo- gist. Certain psychic happenings, which merit investigation, can surely be found in the circles of Mrs. Annie Besant's " Theosophical Society/' Some isolated cases of minor significance, such as those of the professional beggars who keep an arm continuously outstretched before them, or who spend their nights on a bed of thorns or prickles, appear to be of daily and common occurrence. And yet all closer examination of their psychic and physical condition is lacking, despite all the interest it would represent. We have no opportunity in Europe for the study of such types.
As can be seen, the field of parapsychological problems is of the widest magnitude and im- portance. We are treating of discoveries which are of equal value to the greatest discoveries of the day in the domain of the natural science.
As a supplement to this book, I have submitted some of the principal ideas with which we are here concerned to closer analysis in an essay, entitled, " Grundbegriffe der Parapsychogie "
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(Fundamental conceptions of Parapsychology), Pfullingen, Baums Verlag, 1921. There is some danger of this essay being overlooked because of the rather remote place of its publication, and I think it worth while therefore to refer to it here. It is not a mere repetition of the present book, but both book and essay are complementary to each other. I have tried in the book to call attention to the reality of parapsychical pheno- mena and in the essay to analyze critically the resulting new conceptions.
LITERARY APPENDIX
A FEW of the more important publications on the subject are mentioned in this Appendix for the information of those interested.
The most valuable material since 1882 is con- tained in the " Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research/' London a periodical which in Germany can only be obtained in the State Libraries of Berlin and Munich. This Society also publishes another journal, for circulation among its subscribers, which does not appear to be available for the general public. These publications must not be confused with the " Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research/' which cannot be found in any German Library, and which, despite all efforts on my part, I have not been able to obtain.
F. W. Myers contributed valuable information from data which appeared in the " Proceedings for Psychical Research " up to 1905, in two volumes, published after his death, in London, 1907: "The Human Personality and its Survival after Death." The French transla- tion, however, only comprises Myers' own text,
170
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leaving out all data from which the book emanates. So far as I know, this volume is not available at any large German Library. I have had the use of the copy belonging to the Neurobiological Institute of Berlin University. The author's theoretical point of view is that of spiritualism.
A French publication which may be compared to that of the " Proceedings " is the " Annales des Sciences Psychiques," edited by Richet. The German " Psychischen Studien " (1920, 47th year) cannot be compared to the above, as apart from some serious articles, so much that is worthless has been published in it. The occasional valuable contributions which it con- tains are swamped by this rubbish. This periodical must either be relieved in the future of this worthless ballast, or a purely scientific journal should be founded to take its place. This might be the "Journal fur Psychologic und Neurologic " (the continuation of the Journal of Hypnotism : " Zeitschrift fur Hypnotismus "), of which a considerable portion would have to be ear-marked for this purpose.
For Chapter /.The book, " Des Indes k la Plante Mars: Etudes sur un cas de somnam- bulisme avec glossolalie," Geneva, 1900, 4th ed. 1909; first appeared after Th. Flournoy's in- vestigations on Helene Smith. A second part followed later, entitled, " Nouvelles Observa- tions sur un cas de Somnambulisms avec
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solalie," in Archives de Psychologic, Vol. I, December, 1901 separately published at Geneva 1902. A German translation of the first book, with extracts from the second publication, appeared under the title " Die Seherin von Genf" (The Seer of Geneva), Leipzig, 1914. Second Edition, 1921, under the title, " Spiritism and Experimental Psychology."
For Chapter IL A criticism of the investiga- tions on Mrs. Piper is contained in a volume by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, entitled, " A Contribution to the Study of the Psychology of Mrs. Piper's Trance Phenomena," in the Proceedings of the S.P.R., Vol. 28, 1915. The following are also of special value :
R. Hodgson, " A Record of Observations of Certain Phenomena of Trance," Vol. 8 (1892). "A Further Record," etc., Vol. 13 (1898).
W. James, "A Record of Observations of Certain Phenomena of Trance," Part III, in Vol. 6(1890).
W. James, " Report on Mrs. Piper's Hodgson Control," Vol. 23 (1909).
A useful insight into circumstances connected with Mrs. Piper is given in the little German book of M. Sage, " Die Mediumschaft der Frau Piper" ("The Mediumism of Mrs. Piper"), Leipzig, 1903. If a new edition of this book is brought out, it would be necessary to include the results of the medium's later development. It
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seems that we have now in Germany a medium like Mrs. Piper, who has been discovered and described by Dr. Joseph Bohm, of Nuremberg, in a "Collection of Essays," Pfullingen, 1921.
For Chapter III. A whole series of articles have appeared in the S.P.R. since 1908, in con- nexion with the Cross-Correspondence. Alice Johnson (First Report) on "The Automatic writing of Mrs. Holland/' in Vol. 21 (1909) ; Alice Johnson (Second Report), etc., in Vol. 24(1910); and Third Report,' etc. (Alice Johnson), in Vol. 25 (1911).
J. G. Piddington, " Three Incidents from the Sittings " (Fragment from the Report compiled by several authors : " Further Experiments with Mrs. Piper in 1918"), in Vol. 24 (1910).
For Chapters IV and P.W. Crookes, " Der Spiritualismus und die Wissenschaft " (Experi- mental Investigations on Psychic Force), Ger- man 2nd Edition, Leipzig ; also " Notes on Seances with D. D. Home," by W. Crookes. Proceedings of S.P.R., Vol. 6, 1889. Carl Friedr. Zoellner, " Wissenschaftliche Abhand- lungen," Vol. 1-3, Leipzig, 1878-79 (Experiments with Slade). Fritz Grunewald, " t)ber eine Wiederholung des Wageversuches von Crookes," in "Psychische Studien," 1920, Books 4, 5, 8.
After the proofs had been passed I received valuable additional information which was con- tained in articles of Grunewald, " Physical-
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Mediumistic Investigations," Pfullingen, 1920* which afford a closer insight into the modern technique for the examination of physical mediumism.
The most comprehensive volume on Eusapia Palladino is that by Enrico Morselli, entitled, " Psicologia e Spiritismo : Impressioni e note critiche sui fenomeni medianici di Eusapia Palladino," in two Vols., Turin, 1908 (with a bibliography of the entire literature written round Eusapia). The investigations of* Botazzi were published in the " Annales des Sciences Psychi- ques," of which an extract appeared in German under the title of " The Scientific Investiga- tions of the Phenomena of Eusapia at Naples University," by Joseph Peter, Leipzig, 1918. The report on the investigations in Paris is compiled by Jules Courtier : Rapport sur les Seances d'Eusapia Palladino a Hnstitut General Psychologique en 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918; Bulletin de 1'Institut General Psychologique, VIII annee, Nr. 5-6, Nov., Dec., 1918. The periodical in question has long been available at the Neurobiological Institute of Berlin Univer- sity, and is now obtainable in the State Library in Munich also. The official accounts of the investigations undertaken by the Committee of the Society for Psychical Research, are by : E. Feilding, W. W. Baggally, and H. Carrington, Report on a series of Sittings with Eusapia
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Palladino, in the Proceedings, Vol. 23 (1909) ; E, Feilding, W. Marriott, Count Perovsky- Petrovo-Solovovo, Alice Johnson, W. W. Bag- gaily, Report on a further series of Sittings with Eusapia at Naples, in the Proceedings, Vol. 25 (1911). Camille Flammarion, " Les Forces Naturelles Inconnues," Paris, 1907. There have also been a few observations on Slade and Eusapia Palladino by Max Dessoir, " Vom Jenseits der Seele," Stuttgart, 1917, 3rd Edition, 1920.
For Chapter V. Works on Eva C. " Pheno- mena of Materialization," a Report on the in- vestigations of mediumistic teleplasma, Munich, 1914 ; " The Controversy about the Phenomena of Materialization," 1914. " Sittings with Eva C.," in May and June, 1914 ; " Psychischen Studien," Vol. 41, 1914 all by A. Freiherr von Schrenck- Notzing. His book on the phenomena of ma- terialization has now been published in English, under the title, " Phenomena of Materializa- tion, a Contribution to the Investigation of Mediumistic Teleplasma," translated by E. E. Fournier d'Albe, London, 1920. This English edition is considerably more complete than the German original. The author enlarges in detail on the attacks made on him since his book was published, particularly with regard to the rumination hypothesis. Furthermore, the ac- counts of the case of Eva C. have been supple- mented by reports from other investigators
ire OCCULTISM AND MODERN SCIENCE
down to the time of writing. The number of illustrations, too, have been increased from 180 to 225, among which a few photographs of materializations are included and the result of Schrenck-Notzing's observations of an Austrian boy on the borders of Bavaria (a case which will surely be of great significance, as the author is at present engaged in its close investigation). " Les Phenomenes dits de Materialization," Etude experimentale, by Juliette Bisson, Paris, 1914; and "So-called Supernormal Physiology and the Phenomena of Ideoplasma " (German), Leipzig, 1920 (also "Psychischen Studien," May, 1920).
A. Freiherr von Schrenck-Notzing's, " Physical Phenomena of Mediumism," " Studies on the Investigation of the Processes of Telekinesis," Munich, refer in the first instance to the processes of Telekinesis, as does W. J. Crawford in his books, " The Reality of Psychic Phenomena " (Raps, Levitation, etc.), 2nd Edition, London, 1919, and " Experiments in Psychical Science (Levitation, Contact and the Direct Voice), London, 1919, and "The Psychic Structures at the Goligher Circle," London, 1921, a highly interesting volume with numerous illustrations. [In W. Fournier d'Albe's book, " The Goligher Circle" (Watkins, London), the author concludes against genuineness Editor.] A summary, by Schrenck-Notzing, of the twenty-six articles by
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J. Ochorowicz, which were published in the " Annales des Sciences Psychiques " (vide 1st ref.), is useful also for its account of Crawford's work.
A few other recent investigations compiled in the German language with regard to other mediums are :
" Experimental Investigations in the Domain of Clairvoyance a Distance," by A. N. Chowrin (German), Munich, 1919. " On a Case of Voluntary Clairvoyance," by W. V. Wasielewski, contained in the " Annals of Natural Philosophy," Vol. ii (1913) ; also reprinted in "The Super- natural World," 24th year, 1916, No. 5. And " Telepathy and Clairvoyance : Experiments and Observations on unusual Psychic Faculties," also by W. V. Wasielewski.
" On Telepathy and Clairvoyance : Experi- mental-theoretic Investigations," by Rudolf Tischner, Munich, 1920.
" Fundamental Conceptions of Parapsycho- logy," Study on Philosophy, by T. K. Oesterreich, Pfullingen, 1920.
Alfred Lehmann's " Superstition and Witch- craft from Ancient Times Until To-day," which has been twice revised, and the enlarged edition of which was published in a German translation with references in Stuttgart, 1908, is most com- prehensive, historically speaking, and instructive in a general sense. The biased point of view of
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the author has, however, since been superseded. His estimate of what is real must be much enlarged.
The theory of spiritism must still be looked for in the classic work on the subject, " Le Livre des Mediums," by Allan Kardec, which has appeared in very many editions. The first German translation was published under the title, "The Book of Mediums," 4th Edition, Leipzig, 1907. Carl du Prels is best informed on the subject so far as German literature is concerned, and his books, " The Riddle of Man- kind," and " Spiritism," were published in the Reklams Universalbibliotek.
Amidst all that I have read in books and in innumerable communications sent to me from literature which is hard to obtain, A. N. Aksakow's chief work, " Animismus und Spiritismus," re- mains the most valuable. It is an attempt to test critically mediumistic phenomena with par- ticular reference to the hypothesis of hallucina- tion and the unconscious mind (2 Vols., 5th Edition, Leipzig, 1919). This book was written as a counter-volume to E. V. Hartmann's book, "Spiritualism," Berlin, 1885, which claimed to relegate all mediumistic phenomena in so far as they are authentic to the domain of telepathy and clairvoyance. In contradiction to this theory, Aksakow attempts to prove that^ the spiritualistic interpretation is the right one. Karl Kiesewetter's "History of the Newer
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Occultism," 2nd Enlarged Edition, Leipzig, 1909, is no less valuable. The author had received many personal communications from Fechner Weber, etc.
Among the mass of spiritualistic literature, I would cite as examples the following volumes : " My Experiences in the Realm of Spirit- ualism," 2nd Edition, Leipzig, 1919, by M. Seiling, " The Mediumship of Mme. Elizabeth von Pribytkoff," by W. v. Pribytkoff (German), Leipzig, 1903. " What I Have Seen," by M. T. Falkomer ; my own investigations in the bright fields of the lesser-known human faculties (Ger- man), Leipzig, 1901.
A new book, which has had a wide circulation in England, was published during the war by the physicist, Sir Oliver Lodge, whose spiritualistic tendencies are well known. The book is en- titled, " Raymond, or Life and Death," London, 1916, and is mainly concerned with the automatic writings which, according to the author's con- viction, emanate from his son Raymond, an English officer, who was killed in action, >
" The Evidence for Communication with the Dead," by Mrs. Anna Hude, London, 1913, is of value by reason of its numerous references to the more recent English investigations. The