CHAPTER XIX

YOUNG EUROPE AND ITS FEDERATED SOCIETIES
In April, 1834, a group of political refugees from several countries of Europe met at Berne, and following the lead of the dominating personality present agreed to form an international revolutionary secret society, to be known as Young Europe, each country represented having its own branch. Of all then established by far the most famous subsequently was the one nearest to the heart of the founder.
The secret society La Giovine Italia, Young Italy, eldest child of Young Europe, was, with its parent society, the conception of Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-72). This extra¬ ordinary man was a conspirator almost from his childhood, and while still extremely young was initiated into the Carbonari by a man named Doria, in days when the ad¬ mission ceremony had perforce become shorn of most of its attendant pomp.
“He informed me. . .that the persecutions of the government and the caution and prudence required in order to reach the aim rendered numerous assemblies impossible; and that I should therefore be spared certain ordeals, ceremonies, and symbolical rites. He questioned me as to my readiness to act, and to obey the instructions which would be transmitted from time to time to me, and to sacrifice myself, if necessary, for the good of the Order. Then after desiring me to kneel he unsheathed a dagger, and recited the formula of oath administered to the initiated of the first or lowest rank, causing me to repeat it after him. He then communicated to me two or three signs by which to recognise the brethren, and dismissed me.”1
1 Lift- and Writings of Joseph Mazzini, quoted by Frost, II, 143.
157
158 FAMOUS SECRET SOCIETIES
This description is interesting, showing as it does the straits to which the Carbonari conspiracy had been reduced ; and it is not surprising to find that Mazzini soon became dissatisfied with this society, and considered its aims vague and indefinite and its plans badly conceived. He also took exception to the fees (five francs monthly) charged the members, which was a sum large enough to debar working men or poor students from joining. The Carbonari, moreover, seemed to pin all their hopes of success on Lafayette and the Grand Lodge of France; and since Mazzini believed that heaven helps those who help them¬ selves he ultimately withdrew from the society and set about organizing a new one.
Before he had perfected his plans he was arrested for conspiracy, and after an imprisonment of six months was banished from Italy. He went to Marseilles, where he formed among the Italian refugees the new society he had pro¬ jected. These refugees had already founded an association called the Apophasimenes, which seemed to Mazzini to consist of “ a sort of military organization — a complex mixture of oaths and symbols, with a multiplicity of grades and ranks, and an exaggeration of discipline calculated to destroy that enthusiasm of the heart which is the source of all great enter¬ prises, and utterly devoid of any dominant moral principle.”
At the head of this association was Carlo Bianco acting under the orders of Buonarotti.1 Mazzini would have nothing to do with it.
He drew up the statutes of his own body which laid down : “ Young Italy is a brotherhood of Italians who are convinced that Italy is destined to become one united nation. They who join the association intend to consecrate both thought and action to the task of reconstituting their country, so that it may indeed become a nation sovereign, united and independent. The unity of Italy is to be established in a republican form. The means adopted are to be education and insurrection. The character of the insurrection must be national.”
1 Philip Michael Buonarotti (1761-1837), Italian patriot and conspirator. He played a certain part in the French Revolution as adherent of the Jacobins.
YOUNG EUROPE AND ITS SOCIETIES 159
There were only two grades in Young Italy, the Initiated and the Initiators. The former were not allowed to admit members, and only men of prudence and intelligence were promoted to the second rank. Members paid 50 centimes a month. The central committee, in Marseilles or elsewhere beyond the Italian frontier, with Mazzini at its head, had the general direction of affairs; details were managed by local committees in the Italian cities. The groups of Initiated with an Initiator at their head were called Congre¬ gations. Their flag was the present Italian tricolour. The symbol was a branch of cypress, in memory of the martyrs of Italian liberty, with the motto “Now and for ever.”
By the most important clause of the initiation oath the candidate swore:
“To dedicate myself wholly and for ever to endeavour to constitute Italy one free, independent, Republican nation — to promote by every means in my power, whether by written or spoken word or by action, the education of my Italian brothers towards the aim of Young Italy. . . . To abstain from enrolling myself in any other association henceforth — to obey all the instructions in conformity with the spirit of Young Italy given me by those who represent with me the union of my Italian brothers, and to keep the secret of these instructions, even at the cost of my life — to assist my brothers in this association both by action and counsel — Now and For Ever.
“This do I swear, invoking upon my head the wrath of God, the abhorrence of man, and the infamy of the per¬ jurer, if I ever betray the whole or a part of this my oath.”
Mazzini claimed that this new society of his was distinct from all previous and existing secret societies by the forms which he had given it — some of which, such as the abolition of a death penalty in the initiate’s oath, certainly were novel.1 He formed the nucleus of the society at Marseilles,
1 This is worth bearing in mind, because Young Italy was repeatedly accused of having employed assassination as a political weapon. Mazzini himself was often attacked on the same score. Thus De la Hodde in Histoire des sociele's secretes et du parti republican de 1830-48 accused him of decreeing the assassination of two members who had withdrawn from Young Italy. Such charges have never been substantiated.
l6o FAMOUS SECRET SOCIETIES
and then by means of correspondence with trusty friends established it in Italy. Genoa and Leghorn were the first places to receive it, but it soon spread all over the rest of the country.
No signs of recognition were adopted; but a piece of paper cut into a peculiar shape and a grip were used to accredit messengers between the central committee and the Congregations. This grip and symbol were changed every three months.
At the end of 1 83 1 a manifesto setting forth the aims of the society was circulated. There followed the publication of a journal edited by Mazzini, La Giovine Italia, in which he was assisted by friends who acted as volunteers in every capacity from type-setter to distributor. Expenses were borne by contributions paid to the society as well as by the sales of the journal. La Giovine Italia was smuggled into Italy regularly and successfully, and as a consequence the society spread swiftly there. The demand for the journal was ever increasing, and its perusal by the uninitiated helped to recruit the society with a great number of new members.
In less than a year Young Italy was the dominant Society of the peninsula.
Representations were made to the French Government by all those authorities in Italy against whom the move¬ ment was aimed, and as a result in August, 1832, Mazzini was ordered to leave France. Deeming his presence in Marseilles necessary, he remained there for a year in hiding still carrying on his work.
About this time changes were made in the constitution of the society. Every member received a nom de guerre; contributions were reduced or suspended in the case of needy members; everyone was ordered to provide himself with a musket and ammunition; and a sign, subject to alteration every three months, was adopted for use by all the initiates.
Young Italy then absorbed into itself not only the Apophasimenes but also the weaker lodges of Carbonari in Italy; and by this time the society had grown so strong that it thought it might proceed to action.
YOUNG EUROPE AND ITS SOCIETIES 1 6 1
The first rising was attempted in Piedmont, and proved a failure. The outcome of this failure was that Mazzini had to remove himself to Geneva, where he set on foot another abortive insurrection, this time in Savoy. The campaign was to begin with an invasion of that State by Italian refugees from France and Switzerland simultaneously. It was hoped that the French Carbonari would assist, but their leader, Buonarotti, held aloof. There was no co¬ operation between the two societies.
The attempt took place at the beginning of 1834, and was completely unsuccessful. In consequence, many of Mazzini’s friends withdrew from Young Italy. In August, 1836, he was expelled from Switzerland, in consequence of representations addressed by the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian Governments to the Swiss authorities, and had to take refuge in London.
From England he directed some other unsuccessful attempts at revolt; and in 1848 went in person to Milan and later to Rome to play a great part in the stirring events of that time. When, in 1849, the battle of Novara seemed to have destroyed all hopes of a free united Italy for genera¬ tions, there was no place left for Mazzini in Italy but a scaffold, and he had to retire to Geneva and resume his plotting.
It is uncertain whether he had anything to do with the next development of secret societies in Italy of which an account was given to the Press in June, 1852. L
“The two societies of Carbonari and Young Italy have joined in an association which bears the name of Reunited Italy. . . . This body which is identical with the Car- bonarism of Young Italy has for object the overthrow of every throne and foreign influence. It wishes to found Italian Unity, render Italy strong and independent, and free her from every stranger element.
“The society is divided into Circles. Each Circle has forty members at most, with a President, four Councillors, a Quaestor and a Master. The rest of the members are named
1 Augsburger Gazette, quoted in the Paris Constitutionnel.
1 62 FAMOUS SECRET SOCIETIES
Associates. There are five kinds of Circle : the Grand Council, the General Circle, the Provincial Circle, the District Circle, and the Communal Circle.
“All the Associates are divided into three Orders: (i) Reunited Adepts, or simple Unitarians; (2) the Presidents and Councillors of the different Circles; (3) the Grand Uni¬ tarians or members of the Grand Circle, and Presidents of the General Circle. Only the Grand Unitarians know the designs of the society and are informed of the violent methods of action that are intended. The society has three secret pass- words; the Associates know one of them, the Uni¬ tarians, two, while the Grand Unitarians know all three. The Grand Council, with supreme and absolute power, is composed of seven Grand Unitarians. Every member owes blind and impassive obedience to its orders.
“ There are seven General Circles, situated at Rome, Turin, Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples, Palermo, and Cagliari. A Grand Unitarian presides over each of these.
“As for the Provincial and District Circles, they may follow actual territorial divisions. Contributions are collected after every meeting of the Circle by the Quasstor. The copper of the artizan is valued as highly as the gold of the wealthy. Part of these funds is employed by each Circle for its own expenses, and the remainder is sent to the Grand Circle, which decides great affairs that demand great sums.
“The Unitarians have the right to initiate Adepts. Any Associate may propose a candidate. A special point is made of propaganda among the troops; and the greatest dis¬ tinctions are offered them. Workmen and people from the lower classes are also accepted. If a member from these classes possesses the necessary education, he is preferred for the rank of Unitarian. He may himself found a Circle and become its President. Every candidate has to undergo a severe examination. After he has been received and has taken the oath, he is given the pass-word, the insignia and the medal of the society. Disobedience and the violation of secrecy are punished with death. Every member has the right to demand protection and help. If an Adept dies poor, the Association takes charge of his children, particularly if he died in the sacred cause of liberty.
“Every three months exact lists of all the members of the society are transmitted to the Grand Council. These lists, which are secret, must contain information about the social
YOUNG EUROPE AND ITS SOCIETIES 1 63
position, family, fortune, capacity, age, influence, and social connexions of every Adept. Every Grand Unitarian is provided with secret instructions to enable him to solve every doubt and remove every difficulty that may arise.”
Interesting as is this latest development of Young Italy, its subsequent history belongs rather to that of the State from which it took its name than to a chronicle of secret societies; and its founder was not to die before he had seen part of his object realised, a United Italy, even if it were not that revivified republic of which he had dreamed, to whose attainment he had devoted his life.
Young Poland was a branch of Young Europe, the pro¬ posed international society formed by Joseph Mazzini at Berne in April, 1834, his supporters being Italian, German, and Polish refugees, who pledged themselves to spread the principles of liberty, fraternity and equality throughout Europe.
Each nation was to have a national committee round which, in Mazzini’s own words, ‘‘all the elements of Re¬ publican progress might rally by degrees”; and these national committees were to be linked with a central Provisional Committee by correspondence.
Secret ceremonies for the affiliation of members were settled, the form of oath agreed on, and the ivy leaf chosen as distinguishing symbol.
Among the Poles present at the formation of the society was Simon Konarski, who had been a Polish Templar, and fought in the insurrection of 1831, rising to the rank of captain. He had also taken part in the abortive rising of 1833. He now determined to employ the newly-formed society in the service of his country.
In pursuance of his idea he journeyed to London in 1835, and while there unfolded to a central committee of his compatriots, exiles all, a plan for raising another in¬ surrection in Poland. His hearers were dubious of success, but gave him all the help they could.
Konarski thereupon travelled back to Poland, and estab¬ lished there the society of Young Poland. In spite of the
164 FAMOUS SECRET SOCIETIES
fact that the Russian authorities were conducting incessant searches after conspirators known or suspected, the new society at once took root and began to flourish, rapidly increasing in strength. It soon embraced all classes of Poles, officers, priests, landed gentry and peasants.
If its rise was sudden, so was its decline. In May, 1838, Konarski was arrested in Vilna, and after nine months of imprisonment and torture was hanged.
The society which he had established did not long survive him. Whether it had only been kept alive by his enthusiasm or whether his fate terrified the members into dissolving it or whether under a changed name it continued the work which he had inaugurated, still remains to be told by some historian of that new Poland which has at last realized the vision granted to its martyred patriots.
The society Young Germany was another branch of Young Europe founded in April, 1834, by political refugees from Italy, Germany and Poland.
The central committee as representing Young Europe sat at Berne and was intended to serve as a liaison body between the daughter societies, Young Italy, Young Germany, Young Poland and Young Switzerland. Mazzini appears not to have expected great immediate results from it. He wrote: “I knew that it embraced too vast a sphere to allow of any practical results, and that much time and many stern lessons would be needed to teach the nations the necessity of a true European fraternity. My only aim therefore was to constitute an apostolate of ideas different from those then current, and to leave them to bear fruit how and when they might.”
Young Germany consisted mainly of workmen nomadic in their habits who thereby escaped overmuch attention from the police.
The aim of the society was political propagandism. Every member bound himself by oath to remain in it till he had reached the age of forty, to shirk neither labour nor personal sacrifice in attaining its aims, and to destroy every document by which the society or its members might be traced. In 1837 a schism took place in the ranks, and
YOUNG EUROPE AND ITS SOCIETIES 1 65
many members joined the Communists; but its numbers increased rapidly later, and by 1845 it was supposed to have a membership of 25,000 German workmen resident in Switzerland.
In Germany branches were formed in several large towns, including Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, and Darmstadt. Among the members was Freiligrath, the poet. At the head of affairs in Lausanne, where the seat of the society had been fixed, was Wilhelm Marr, a journalist.
There was a growing desire in Germany for a constitutional union of the whole nation, and this found a voice after the French revolution of 1848. In opposition to the con¬ stitutional reformers, Young Germany decided on armed revolution, and launched an insurrection in Baden. It met with no success, and the leaders decided that the German masses were not yet ripe for an appeal to arms to establish a republic. The failure of the German Governments to come to any satisfactory agreement at Frankfort in devising a constitution for a United Germany led to a congress of the democratic parties at Berlin in the autumn of 1848. At this congress Young Germany was represented, and a manifesto was published expressing very advanced views on State ownership of land, free education, etc., etc. This was followed early the following year by another insurrection in Baden, which spread apace, and met with some measure of success at first, only to be stamped out by Prussian troops in June, 1849. This was followed all over Germany by a counter-revolution, in which Young Germany gradually became extinct.
The society, later known as Young Switzerland, was founded in Berne towards the close of 1834 with the object of altering the anomalies that existed in the Swiss electoral franchise whereby many citizens were left without represen¬ tation in Parliament. After a short interval the society proceeded to affiliate itself to Mazzini’s Young Europe movement, and adopted the name of Young Switzerland.
In 1835 it undertook the publication of a periodical entitled, La Jeune Suisse, which was edited by French and German political refugees; but it had no long life, for in 1836
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1 66 FAMOUS SECRET SOCIETIES
representations from the Government of Louis Philippe led to the arrests of its editor and some of the contributors, and shortly after it became extinct. This failure of its journal checked the progress of the society, which thereupon assumed a new name, the Association of the Griitli, and severed its connexion with Young Europe.
In 1844 it was denounced under its new name in the Canton of Zurich as one of the three illegal and secret societies existing in Switzerland, the other two being Young Germany and the Communists. The aims of the society, however, had by this time become the ideals of a majority of Swiss citizens, as was proved by the outbreak and issue of the civil war of 1845. As a result of this event, the constitution of the country was revised, the objects of the Griitli accomplished, and the society thereupon dissolved itself.