CHAPTER VII.

AGRICULTURE— IRRIGATION-LOTUS— PAPYRUS.
(5 1 HE agricultural part of Egypt is divided into what is known as ejJL /?ai and Sharaki lands. The former is that portion of the soil subject to the annual inundations of the waters of the Nile, without any- other assistance than in directing the course of the flooding turbid waters to where it is needed for irrigating the land over which it flows. The Rai land produces only one natural crop, but it can be made to yield a second, or even a third, if properly irrigated and attended. The Sharaki land is that particular part of the soil which requires artificial irrigation, for without water nothing would grow thereon, as it lies above the flooding waters of the river ; therefore to make it produce abundantly, it is necessary to irrigate these parts by various methods, such as the Shaduf, Sakiyeh, Tabut and pumps, comprising machines that lift the water to the desired height for irrigating the soil.
The seasons are divided into three parts, of four months each. The most important of all is the Winter Season {es Shitawi) which com- mences at the end of the inundation, or somewhere about the first of November, in Middle Egypt, and ends in the last days of February. During the early part of this season the whole of the Delta presents a very peculiar appearance, for it looks exactly like an immense checker- board of water, whose dividing lines are the banks of the canals through which the waters of the Nile flow to all parts of Lower Egypt. Here and there, above the flooded country, stand villages, surrounded by clusters of palms and occasionally sycamores, that relieve the monotony of the scene.
As soon as the waters begin to subside and the fields are still moist, the staple food of the Egyptians is sown, as well as what is necessary for the use of their domestic animals, such as wheat, barley, beans, chick- peas, clover, vetches, etc. This seed is scattered broadcast upon the soft
150 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
wet soil, and pressed into it bj^ various very simple methods, one of wliicli is by driving tbeir domestic animals across the seeded soil. Sometimes they do not go to that trouble; but just leave the seed lying upon the surface of the soft wet mud or ground, when, by its own weight, it sinks beneath the surface and under the conditions of heat, light and moisture, very soon germinates and begins to grow luxuriantly and in abundance.
All sowing is done in the same old primitive way as in the time -when Moses lived, and that is " by hand." The sower fills his basket full of seed, then slings it upon his shoulder and scatters it broadcast upon the wet shimmering soil. About four months from the time of sowing the seed, they begin to harvest the beans, lupins, clover, etc. ; but the wheat and barley will take fully three months longer to mature and ripen, ready for harvesting, which is done in a very primitive manner, according to the ancient methods of their great ancestors. They either pull up the stocks b}- the roots, or cut them oft" with a sickle or knife, close to the ground, and pile them in a heap in the middle of the field. They then hitch up a couple of oxen to a " norag " (a kind of sled that rests upon a heavv roller, with sharp pieces of iron fastened to it) which is then driven over the pile, backwards and forwards, bruising and crushing the stalks and freeing the grain from the husk. The}^ then gather up the larger parts of the stalks and throw them aside. The grain is separated from the husks and rubbish b}^ throwing the crushed pile up into the wind ; when the light chaff is blown awaj^ and the grain falls to the ground, after which it is gathered up and stored for future use.
The Summer Season — es Seffi, begins with the month of March and ends in June. Ver}' little is raised in Upper Egj'pt during this season, as during the whole of the time the cultivable land is very narrow and the greater portion nearl}' always under water, though they do raise considerable produce in many places. There are large quantities of millet, cucumbers, melons, etc., raised during this time, and they sow a great deal of sugar-cane during the commencement of this season ; but it is not harvested, for conversion into sugar, until the latter part of Januar}' or the middle of Februar}^, although they cut large quantities for eating during the month of October. In Lower Egypt, or the Delta,
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the summer season is a very important one, for then is the time they plant indigo, cotton, rice, etc., which is harvested generally between the months of October and December. They plant cotton in April and then harvest it in November, and frequently reap quite a large amount from a second crop of this plant. This season is when their tobacco crop is harvested, of which they grow large quantities. Now is the farmer's delight in the Delta, as the whole of this part of Egypt is clothed in luxuriant vegetation, the gardens and fields are all laden with fruits that gladden the hearts of men. As far as the eye can reach we may see luxuriant crops of all kinds growing and ripening.
The Autumn Season, {ed Deviira^ begins with the rising or inundation of the Nile during the month of July, and ends in October. In the middle of this season the Delta was formerly covered with the flooding, rushing waters of the Nile, bearing out the statement which Herodotus makes in Book II, Chapter 97 : " When the Nile overflows, the country is converted into a sea, and nothing appears but the cities, which look like the islands in the ^gean. At this season boats no longer keep the course of the river, but sail right across the plain. On the voyage from Naucratis to Memphis, at this season, you pass close to the Pyramids, whereas the usual course is by the apex of the Delta and the city of Cercasorus. You can sail also from the maritime town of Kanopus across the flat to Naucratis, passing by the cities Anthylla and Archandropolis . ' '
During this season of the year corn is planted with millet, etc. And although it is a very short season, of but a little over seventy days, yet, during that time the fertile soil of the Delta matures and ripens the immense fields of growing grain, which is harvested somewhere about the latter part of September or the beginning of October. This season is really a harvesting time, not only of corn, millet, etc., but of all that which had been planted during the summer. At this time of the year (September) the Delta presents to view smiling fields of waving grain, when every spot of arable land is teeming in fertility, from Alexandria to Cairo. It will be a scene never to be forgotten by all those who travel through the Delta of the Nile during the latter part of Autumn.
There is a vast difference to-day in the inundations of the river Nile from those of ancient times ; for now they are able to control, in a
152 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
great measure, the flooding waters of old " God Nilus ; " thanks to the efforts of Mohammed Ali, Ishmail Pasha and the British, in constructing places for the purpose of storing the surplus waters of the river, so as to distribute it when and where it would be most needed.
Mohammed Ali endeavored to build a barrage in order to preserve the surplus waters of the river. The construction of the dam was in charge of Mogul Bey, a Frenchman, who worked upon it for years, in the hope of making it a success ; but it ultimately proved a miserable failure. The British afterwards reconstructed it and made it thoroughly secure. During their early occupation of this country they devoted a great deal of time and attention to this matter and appropriated considerable sums of money toward improvements along these lines, and to-day they have very nearly completed two most magnificent dams, of which I make mention in another chapter, to regulate the river's flow and reclaim a vast amount of desert land destined to support an addi- tional population of from one to two millions of people. The prosperity of Egypt depends upon the storage of the water and controlling the flow of the river which runs to waste during the winter, and for that reason the 'British are constructing these enormous dams to prevent loss and utilize every gallon of water needed for irrigation.
The river Nile has created tlie soil of Egypt through its annual inundations, by depositing layer after layer of alluvial deposits brought down from the mountains of Abyssinia.
Herodotus says, in Book II, Chapter 4 : " That the priests told him that when Mm (Menes) was King, all Egypt, except the Thebaic canton was a marsh, and that none of the land below lake Moeris then showed itself above the water. This is a distance of seven days' sail from the sea up the river."
In Chapter 5 : " Wiat they said of their country seemed to me very reasonable. For any one who sees Eg5'pt without having heard a word about it before, must perceive, if he has only common powers of observa- tion, that the Egypt to which the Greeks go, in their ships, is an acquired country, the gift of the river. The same is true of the land above the lake, to the distance of three days' voyage, concerning which the Egyp- tians say nothing, but which is exactly the same kind of coiintr}'. The following is the general character of the region : In the first place, by
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 153
sea, when you are still a days' sail from land, if you let down a sounding- line you will bring up mud and find j-ourself in eleven fathoms of water, which shows that the soil washed down by the stream extends to that distance."
In Chapter 7. — " From the coast inland, as far as Heliopolis, the breadth of Eg3^pt is considerable, the country is flat, without springs and full of swamps. The length of the route, from the sea up to Heliopolis, is almost exactly the same as that of the road which runs from the altar of the twelve gods at Athens, to the temple of the Olympian Jove at Pisa. If a person made a calculation he would find but very little difference between the two routes, not more than about fifteen furlongs ; for the road from Athens to Pisa falls short of fifteen hundred furlongs by exactly fifteen, whereas the distance of Heliopolis from the sea is just the round numbers."
Fraas, quoted by Baedeker, in his "Lower Egj'pt," says: "Through- out the whole of Egypt the Nile mud rests on a bed of sea sand. The whole country between the first cataract and the Mediterranean was formerly a narrow estuary, which was probably filled by degrees, during the Pleiocene period with lagoon deposits, washed down from the crystalline Habesh. At a later period, when Egypt had risen from the sea, and after the isthmus had been formed, the river forced itself through these deposits of mud, sweeping away many of these loose particles at one place and depositing them again farther down."
Now, from my own personal observations, I do most firmly believe that at one time all that country, knov/n as the Delta, was an estuary, and the river itself has been for ages bringing down a sedimentary deposit to build up this most important part of Egypt, the " Delta of the Nile," and continually renews it, by fresh accumulations, at every inun- dation or overflow of this remarkable old river, thus maititaining it, in a perpetual state of fertility, through the rich alluvial soil that is continu- ally deposited upon the land by the flooding waters of the Nile.
After the Delta of the Nile had been formed, in the ancient days of Egj^ptian history, it was watered by seven different branches of the river, while to-day only two make their exit into the Mediterranean Sea by their regular channels, these two being known as the Bolbetiiie and the Phatnitic. The first is called the Rosett-a branch, the other one is known
154 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
as the Damietta branch of the Nile while the other five, the Kanopic, Mendesian, Sebennytic, Pelusiac, and Tanitic, are of but very little use or importance, except for irrigation purposes, as they are nearly always dry ; but are kept open simply for carrying water for irrigation.
The Bolbetine branch took its name from the ancient town of Bolbitiinim. The ancient site of this town lies about a couple of miles South of the modern town of Rosetta, in Arabic Rashid^ founded by one of the Caliphs of the Tiilunide Dynasty, probably Ahmed-ibn-Tuliin. It was formerly a very important and flourishing town of great commercial interest, to that branch of the Nile on which it stood, as well as the coun- try tributary to it. At the present time- its harbors are filled with the Nile deposit and only vessels of the smallest draft are enabled to enter ; in fact, since the completion of the Mahmudiyeh canal, opened on the 2oth day of Januar}', 1820, its importance began to decline, and its traffic diverted to the city of Alexandria. This town of Rosetta, at the beginning of the present century, had a population of between twenty-five and thirt}^ thousand inhabitants, while at the present writing it has dwindled down to a population of less than one half of those figures. It is a very pleasant Arab town, chiefly celebrated for its gardens, then the principal attraction to the better class of Europeans as well as native Egyptians from interior cities. It was formerly a favorite summer resort, on account of the salubrity of the atmosphere and its picturesque beauty. There are several large mosques and khans in this town, as well as the typical bazaar of Egypt, the whole being surrounded by a wall with loopholes that have been cut at regular places for the purpose of firing through, in case of an attack from invaders ; but these walls would be of very little use if opposed to artillery fire. This city is also celebrated for the dis- covery of the famous trilingual stone, which was found here by a French officer while digging the foundation of Fort St. Julian. It is now in the British Museum, and is known as the " Rosetta Stone."
Off to the west of Rosetta and in plain sight is the bay' of Abu-kir whereon was fought the celebrated " Battle of the Nile," on the first day of August, in, the year 1798. Admiral Lord Nelson, while cruising along the coast discovered the French ships at anchor, which he immediately engaged, totally destroying fourteen vessels out of the seventeen compos- ing the fleet under command of Admiral Brueys. The completion of the


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EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 155
victory was iu the destruction of the L'Orient, commanded b}' the French Admiral himself. The destruction of this ship and fleet destroyed the power of the French and caused Napoleon to hurriedly return to Europe. Shortly afterwards Sir Ralph Abercrombie effected a landing at the battle of Alexandria, which, with the capitulation of Cairo, compelled the French to evacuate Eg3'pt and return to France, very much demoralized at their losses. Sir Ralph Abercrombie was killed during the battle of Alexan- dria. East of the town of Rosetta is Lake Barulos which I shall speak of later on.
The Phatnitic branch of the Nile flows into the Mediterranean just west of the most northerly part of Lake Menzala, and the town of Dainietta is situated on the east bank of the river, where it was once noted as being the most important town on the east side of the river and originally contained a population of about forty-five thousand inhabitants. Like its companion town Rosetta, it has fallen in importance through the growth of Alexandria and later Port Said, and to-day it has a population of about twenty-five thousand. This town was known to the ancient Egyptians as TamiatJiis, when it was considered to be the Key to the Delta, during the crusades especiall}-. Its principal revenues are derived from the manufacturing of leather and cloth, while the fishing ' industry enables its inhabitants to keep up a lucrative trade with the interior cities. The town lies due west of Lake Menzala and the ex- treme shallowness of its waters prevent vessels from entering the harbor ; but there is some talk of cutting a canal to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the river Nile. If this were done it would no doubt restore a great deal of the trade lost through the difficulties of keeping the port open, that shipping could enter, discharge, and take on their cargoes for other ports.
The Delta of the Nile still preserves the same fan-like tract of land, lying between Alexandria and Port Said on the North, and Cairo at the apex of the Delta, on the South. From this last mentioned city the Delta begins to widen out into a regular fan-like formation, beginning at Lake Mareotis on the East, in about 30° East longitude, and ending with parts of the land extending into and helping to form, with Port Said and the Suez Canal, Lake Menzala, in about 32° East longitude. This land, roughly estimated, consists of about one hundred and sixty-five miles,
156 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
running from iVlexandria along the coast line, while the apex of the Delta lies very near Cairo, in aboitt 32° North latitude, being distant from Alexandria nearly two hundred miles by river and one hundred and twenty-three b}' rail. The Delta has an area of about six thousand three hundred and fifty square miles, comprising good agricultural land. Its lack of woods and forests is one of its noticeable features. There is quite a number of trees to be seen in Lower Egj^pt but the most common is the date palm, which is cultivated and especiall}' cared for on account of its fruit.
Mr. Poole, in his very interesting work on Egypt, says, on pages 31 and 32 : "The interior of the Delta is a' wide level plain, intersected by a network of canals, fed b}' the divided stream of the Nile, often running in ancient channels and fenced in by high embankments. The whole plain is clothed with rich crops of all manner of vegetation and the whole lit up with the snow-white blossoms of the cotton plant. Near the banks of the canals and river-arms are some three hundred small villages and a few towns, generall}- erected high above the inundation, on the lofty mounds of dark earth, the sites of ancient cities and temples, which are a prominent feature of the plain. At a distance the villages look almost a part of the mounds, for the most part merel}- a cluster of mud-huts surrounded by dove-cotes and palm groves, M'ith a white-washed minaret standing out from the confused mass ; but mau}^ of these villages take a fair share in the trade which the fertilizing Nile affords to the plain, and have developed into small birt populous towns. They can be seen in every stage of progress, from the huddled head of mud-huts, piled up by the fellaheen who work the neighboring water- wheel, and sow the fields around, through the open door-holes of which the wretched poverty of the Eg3'ptian peasant is plainl}^ visible, to the well-to-do town, which boasts something like a definite street, and several mosques, where minarets overtop the houses and necessar}- palms. Houses and hovels are built of the same material, the inevitable Nile mud, though for the better houses in damp regions the bricks are baked, a precaution unknown in the villages higher up.
" The principal towns of the interior are — Demen-hur (" City of Horus"), west of the Rosetta branch, with a populatiou of twenty-five thousand, possessed of considerable factories for cleaning cotton and
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 157
preparing it for export, as well as El Mansurah, on tlie Damietta branch, the scene of the defeat of Jean de Brienne by a nephew of Saladin in 1221, and the prison of Saint Louis in 1250, at the disastrous termination of the sixth crusade. Tanta, between the two, a fine town of thirt_v thousand inhabitants, famous for its Saint Atnad El-Bedawy and his annual festivals, improperlj- but appositely called fairs, that are held for a week and a day in Januar}*, April and August. The last and greatest of these festivals bring together half a million people to honor the Saint and obtain benefits for themselves from his inter- cession, as well as to enjo}' the tricks of the jugglers, the dancing of the Ghawaz}^, and the fun and revelry which are the main characteristics of this religious festival. Ez-Zaqaziq, with fort}' thousand inhabitants, is the centre of the cotton trade of the Delta, situated in the midst of a fertile and wooded region, watered b}- a fine system of canals, and supporting a prosperous farming population. Near Ez-Zaqaziq runs the Fresh Water Canal which convcN'S the Nile water to Suez. This canal is of ancient construction and was built by the Pharaohs, perhaps four thousand years ago, and reopened by M de Lesseps to give drinking water to the work- men engaged upon the Suez Canal. It is now connected with Cairo by the Ismailia Canal and runs through the Wad}- Tumilat, which it fertilizes by its water, and after reaching Ismailia turns down to Suez. Though principally an aqueduct it is also serviceable for local traffic."
There are quite a number of towns in the Delta I have already written about, such as Sais, Tanis or Zoan, Bubastis, Semmenud, and others that could be described ; but one town in the Delta is, in a measure, typical of all the rest, and therefore a description of them would simply be a mere repetition of words.
In approaching the apex of the Delta we are enabled to see the Libyan range of mountains and the Mokattum hills, drawing closer tog-ether. In the middle distance the dark foliage marks the site of " Grand Cairo," with its citadel, splendid mosques and minarets, whose gorgeous beauties have been so highly praised by all Arabian writers, as well as b\' man}' modern historians. To say anything regarding its varied charms and beauties not already described would, indeed, be a difiScult task ; but as all people do not see alike, I will leave my descrip- tion of this peculiar city and its environs for a future chapter, and tell
158 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
yoii what impressed nie wliile sojourning in that quaint okl city, the capital of Kgypt. From our present view we can see very plainly the pyramids in the plains of Gizeh and the solitar}^ obelisk that marks the site of the celebrated city of Heliopolis, " The cit}- of the Sun," of which I shall speak later on.
There are five lakes of brackish water sitiiated in the northern part of the Delta, which are separated from the Mediterranean Sea by long and narrow ridges of sand, through man}- of which the salt water filters and mixes with the fresh water of the river Nile during the overflow. The first is Lake Mareotis, not far from the city of Alexandria. In fact, after leaving this city by the Gabari Gate the lake is right beside us. In the winter the waters of this lake are high, owing to the inundation; but later on are surrounded by a vast area of swampy, ill-smelling bog- land, pregnant with malaria, etc. At one time this lake was not near so large as at present, and during the summer months is a disagreeable marsh. It was originally a fertile plain, with a beautiful lake of fresh, clear, pure Avater in the centre ; from which the citj- of Alexandria drew her water supply. When the British laid siege to this cit}^, in the year iSoi, they cut off the water snppl}'' from Alexandria by digging an immense ditch from the AlediteiTanean Sea into the low land adjoining the lake, which not onlv flooded the country but destroyed the lake and a very large number of villages dotting" the plain around it, thus sacrificing a great number of lives, bxit they succeeded in capturing Alexandria.
Lake Abukir originally belonged to and formed part of Mareotis, but when IMohammed Ali constructed the Mahmndiyeh canal in iSig he threw up very high embankments which cut off" the northern por- tion, entirely separating it from IMareotis, as the canal ran right through it to Alexandria.
Mnrray, on page 196, says this canal " received its name in honor of the Sultan Mahmnd second. The cost is said to have 'been three hundred thousand pounds ; and two hundred and fifty thousand men were emploj'ed about one year in digging it, of whom twenty thousand perished by accident, hunger and plague. It commences at the village of Atfih, on the Rosetta branch of the Nile, and has a total length of fifty miles, with an average width of about one hundred feet. A part
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 159
of its course is identical with that of the ancient Kanopic branch of the Nile, and the old canal of Fiia, which was used in the time of the Venitians for carrying goods to Alexandria, and existed, though nearly dry, in Savary's time, A. D. 1777. The right bank of the Mahraiidiyeh Canal is bordered for some distance with the houses and gardens of the wealthy inhabitants of Alexandria."
This part of the lake, at certain seasons of the year, is a very unhealthy place, a fact evidenced by the great number of men who died from the baneful influence of this part of the Delta during the con- struction of the Mahmudiyeh Canal. This branch of the Nile is the most westerly, and flows into the Abukir Bay, close to where the British destroyed the French fleet at the battle of the Nile.
It was upon the west bank of this arm of the Nile (Kanopic) that the town of Kanopus was located, and it is said to have derived its name from the pilot of Menelaus, who sailed to that place on his return from the siege of Troy. Strabo describes this town as follows : " Kanopus is a city which lies one hundred and twenty stadia (about fourteen English miles) from Alexandria, if one goes by land, and is named after the helmsman of Menelaus who died there. It contains the highly revered temple of Serapis, which, moreover, works such miracles that even the most respectable men believe in them, and either sleep in it them- selves, or get others to sleep there for them. Some persons also record the cures, and others the effects of the oracle dreams experienced there. A particularly remarkable thing is the great number of parties of pleasure descending the canal from Alexandria ; for day and night the canal swarms with men and women, who perform music on the flute and licentious dances in the boats with unbridled merriment, or who, at Kanopus itself, frequent taverns situated on the canal and suited for such amusement and revelry."
This city was noted for several temples, the chief of which was that of Serapis. This deity was worshipped here with the most pro- found respect. The Kanopic jars, which I shall describe in the chapter devoted to embalming, owe their name to this place. It was here that the celebrated trilingual stone called by the French savants " La Pierre de San " especially refers to what was known as the " Decree of Kanopus."
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Directly east of Abukir is a long stretch of sand, separating it from Lake Edku, another body of brakish water of no especial interest. The ford which connects this lake with the sea is supposed by many to be the ancient Kanopic mouth of the river Nile. It is separated from the Mediterranean by a long drear}^ waste of sand, along which runs the railroad to Rosetta, lying to the northeast of Edku, and beyond the Bolbitinic branch of the Nile is Lake Brulus, situated between the two towns of Rosetta and Damietta. The Sebennytic mouth of the Nile empties into the sea from this lake, in about 31° east longitude and very near the long sandy ridge which divides it from the Mediterranean Sea.
The last of this series of lakes is Menzala, the most extensive lake in Egypt, an immense , swamp at certain seasons, having an area of about five hundred thoiisand acres. It is a shallow lake, drifting off into marshy creeks, dotted here and there with number- less islands, many of which are flooded and disappear entirely during the inundations of the river, a most desolate region, pregnant with fever, etc. There are two ancient mouths of the Nile that flow into the sea from this lake, known as the Mendesian and Tanitic. A few of the islands in this lake will prove of great interest to the student and tourist. The principal ones are Tuna and Tennes. The first contains a small village called Shekh Abdullah, where there are some very interesting ruins.
Tennes is the ancient site of Tennesus, and contains a great many remains of vaulted tombs, baths and foundations that were constructed by the ancient Romans, after Egypt became tributary to the imperial power of Rome.
All through northern Eg3'pt, in the vicinity of these lakes, are the grazing lands of the Egyptians, each of which furnish a very good field for the hunter; but one desirous of this privilege must first secure a permit before he is allowed to look across the sights of either gun or rifle. On all these lakes wild-fowl of varous kinds are to be found in abundance, such as wild duck, geese, coot, peli- can, silver heron, flamingo, cormorant, etc. In many of these streams certain parts are especially reserved, where no shooting is allowed, except- ing to those paying for the privilege. I have spent many glorious days
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 161
— aye, and weeks, — hunting on the lakes Menzala, Bruins and others, where many birds of all kinds were secured, and nearly devoured alive, at night in our tent, by the bloodthirsty mosquitos. During our hunting expeditions over these lakes we had a couple of good English punts, belonging to a friend, who had purchased them from an English captain for the express purpose of hunting. They were of very light draught and far superior to the old-fashioned, unwieldy Arab boats generally used here by sportsmen.
One thing seemed very strange to me, I did not see a single specimen of the papyrus plant during my ramblings through the whole of Lower Egypt. It used to be carefully cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, and grew in great abundance all over the Delta, more especially in those branches of the Nile and the streams flow- ing from them through this part of the country. The raising and manufacturing of papyrus into rolls was, at one time, a distinguish- ing industry in Semmenud.
Ebbers, in his article on the " Writing Materials of Antiquity," says, quoting Professor Schenk, in reply to inquiries asking his opinion upon the preparation of the specimens submitted to him : " I believe I am cor- rect in the opinion that in the preparation, thinner or thicker lamella were cut from the inner texture or pith, and these were laid upon each other in such wise that the fibers crossed, the finer sorts being prepared of two and the rougher kinds out of three lamella ; the thickness thus differing with the variety. They were then united by an adhesive sub- stance, of what nature I can give no definite information. Its solubility in potash seems to indicate the use of the white of an egg, and possibly this alone was employed.
" Rolls and pieces of the different sort of papyrus used for writing materials are preserved in large quantities. The last decade has wit- nessed the most surprising increase in their numbers. As the result of thorough study, not of the writings with which they are covered, but of the papyri themselves. Professor U. Wilcken, of Breslau, discovered on which side of the papyrus the true page of the writing lay. It is invaria- bly the one which, pending the fabrication, has lain uppermost and whose fibers, being laid upon the table, occupy a horizontal position ; that page of the leaf on which the fibers run vertically is the reverse side. Thus 11
162 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
on the page with the horizontal fibers, generally the smoother and better finished, which is recognizable at the first glance, the text was begun. That which is written on the reverse side may be the end of the writing, for which there was insufiicient space on the principal page, or it may be a later addition. Thousands of papyri have confirmed this observation.
" Also the horizontal side is the one originally destined to be written upon. This can scarcely be otherwise, as from all the manipvilations of its fabrications — pressure, beating smooth, etc., — the upper side derived a much better finish than the one upon the table. Reversing the half- finished page, with a view to a similar treatment of both sides is unknown. The importance of the discovery rests in the fact that, when a papyrus is written on both sides, the writing on the horizontal side may be declared the more ancient. For example if a dated letter or contract is found on the vertical side, and on the horizontal the epigramme of a poet, the period of which we do not know, we may venture to assert that the poet lived prior to the date on the vertical side.
'' Among the various kinds of papyrus the most excellent were those on which, in time of the Pharaohs, hieratic texts were inscribed and Strabo mentions the hieratic papyri as the best of all. It may perhaps be the same sort which was called, after the Emperor Augustus, 'the Augustinian.' Connected with this is another, which was called ' Liviana' after the Empress Livia, the consort of Octavia. Others were named from the places of their origin as Saitic, Tanitic, etc., or according to their uses as theatre programmes, wrapping paper, etc."
Many important discoveries of papyri have been made in Upper Egypt during the nineteenth century. To-da}^ a vast amount of manu- scripts pertaining to science, etc., are being found, which are proving of great value and interest to the scientific world in their investigations throughout the whole of this most extraordinary country. The papyrus was one of the most useful plants cultivated by the Egyptians. The roots and young shoots, as well as parts of the stem, were used as food in lieu of grain, to supply its want among the poorer classes of the Delta. Other parts were used for making baskets, mats, etc., while the stems were bound together and used for rafting purposes on the river and streams. The name of this plant became famous in the histor}'- of civilization for the manner in which writing material was manufactured out of its pith.
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 163
The papyrus was, as I have previously stated, found in great abund- ance principally in the lakes and watercourses of the Delta. In conse- quence of this it became the hieroglyphic symbol of Lower Egypt, as well as adjacent countries, while the lotus was far more prolific in Upper Kgypt and was used to symbolize that country as well as Nubia and the bordering nations. The lotus is found carved upon every temple through- out the length and breadth of the valle}^ of the Nile. Isis is invariably represented holding a lotus flower in one hand, while in the other she carries the crux ansata.
In the " Secret Doctrine," Vol. I, section 8, page 406, we find that " There are no ancient symbols without a deep and philosophical meaning attached to them, their importance and significance increasing with their antiquity. Such is the lotus. It is the flower sacred to Nature and her God, and represents the abstract and concrete universe, standing as the emblem of the productive powers of both spiritual and physical nature. It was held as sacred from the remotest antiquit}^ b}^ the Aryan Hindus, the Egyptians, and by the Buddhists after them. It was revered in China and Japan and adopted as a Christian emblem by the Greek and Latin churches, who made of it a messenger, as do now the Chris- tians who have replaced it with the water lily.
'' In the Christian religion, in every picture of the annunciation, Gabriel, the Archangel, appears to the Virgin Mary holding in his hand a spray of water lilies. This spray typifying Fire and Water, or the idea of creation and generation, symbolizes precisely the same idea as the Lotus in the hand of Bodhisattva who announces to Maha Maya, Gua- tama's Mother, the birth of Buddha, the world's Saviour. Thus, also, were Osiris and Horns constantly represented b}' the Egyptians in asso- ciation with the Lotus-flower, both being Sun Gods, or Gods of Fire ; just as the Holy Ghost is still typified by ' tongues of fire ' in the Ac/s.'''
" I,ove came to Flora asking for a flower,
That would of flowers be undisputed queen ; The L,ily and the rose long, long had been
Rivals for that high honor. And Flora gave the Lotus ' rose-red ' dyed,
And ' lyilh^ white ' the queenliest flower that blows."
— Ceiitury Magazine.
1
The Lotus has been exalted and religiously venerated by the Hindus, in the ancient days, as well as by all nations of the world, down to the Christians of to-day. Throughout the East, in prehistoric times, as well as the present, this flower was the theme of the poet. Its praise has been spoken and sung in every age and every land of the far East, immortalized in song and story. In our day Heine^ Temjysoii^ and Sir Edwin Arnold have rendered homage in raphsodies of song to this flower of the " Land of the Vedas " and the glorious East.
This magnificent flower, emblem of the human soul, at whose birth the spotless purity of its glorious petals repelled the impurities from which it sprung. The muddj' waters, coming in contact with its virgin blossoms, leaves or buds, roll back from them, leaving no stain. In the same way the pure in heart are impervious to the stain of sin, though surrounded by evil thoughts and evil deeds which permeate this world, as never resting upon or entering into the heart of the pure and true. Flowers of many varieties are found in all parts of Egypt which are called by the name of the Lotus, though none of them are the inie or sacred flower of the Hindu or Buddhist. They are simply different species of the water lil}^ having attached to them no sacred traditions.
The Egyptian Lotus is not the sacred Lotus of India; but very nearly approaches that glorious flower in its general characteristics. There are many Lotus-like flowers in Eg3'pt of various hues, which rise out of the water at sunrise and disappear again at the setting of the sun. Many of the so-called Lotuses have been mistaken for N. Ncluinbo the sacred flower of India. But it is not to be found in any part of Egypt. The Nymphaca Lotus, and Nymphaca ceni/ea are found in great quanti- ties in both L^pper and Lower Egypt, but as previously stated are not the sacred flower, the great brilliant rose-pink, the matchless Lotus of the Hindu and Buddhist, the royal lily of Siam. The true sacred Lotus of India is the universal symbol of the Kosmos, as the absolute totalit}^, and the jewel is spiritual Man or God, and " Otn Mam' Padnic Hum^'' (O the jewel in the Lotus) points to the indissoluble union between Man and the Universe.
The full-grown Lotus flower is larger and more brilliant by far than the smaller and more compact water lily. It has not the stainless purity of the white lily, nor the rich, deep, ruby color of the darker lily, but its
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 165
own brilliant rose-pink is matchless, unapproachable. The English heart goes out to it, reminded by its color-tone of the delicate brier-roses at home, and like the brier-rose its days are short. The petals that were perfect yesterday, are to-day parting and falling into the pool. But as they fall they reveal the most curious and botanically the most interest- ing of all the Lotus charms. This is the unique " receptacle " or fruit case, whose peculiarities at once distinguish the Nelumbian from the water lily. This receptacle occupies the central position in the flower, and the golden threads which surround it when the flower is in full bloom, fade away when the petals fall, and the receptacle is left alone on the top of the flower stalk. It is shaped like a boy's peg-top, with the narrow point downwards, and the broad circular end uppermost. The little fruits commonly called " seed " are immersed separately from its neighbors in this spongy receptacle. Now this is wholly a different state of things from those found in the water lily. There the little fruits, although individually free their entire length, are inclosed in a hollow case, and can thus touch each other. The degree of freedom is of course greater in the Lotus, where each little fruit has its own circle, instead of living in one large dormitory, with many other families, as the water lily carpels have to do. But in one respect, at any rate, the fruits of the water lily and the Lotus are alike — " they are all very wholesome eating."
The bulb of the Egyptian Lotus is very sweet and wholesome, and the seeds, when taken from the ciboriuvi or capsule, are ground into flour and mixed with either milk or water. Baked in the same \\-a.y as bread, and eaten warm, fresh from the oven, it is considered very whole- some. It supplies the place of corn to the poorer classes throughout Egypt, who are unable to obtain that commodity.
Before leaving the Delta of the Nile, I would like to call the attention of my readers to the natural chain of lakes that run from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez. First comes Menzala, next Balah, then Timsha and finally the Great Bitter Lakes, and the Gulf of Suez reaching down the Red Sea, giving one the impression that the two seas were originally connected. I incline to the same opinion, in relation to this matter, as Mr. Stanley Lane Poole. He says in his work "Egypt," page 113: "The Isthmus of Suez was originally a strait, and the only eminence on its low level surface — the hilly
lUU EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
district called El-Gis7\ or the causeway near the middle — is the result of the accumulation of sand produced b}^ the meeting of the two seas, aided by the silting up of the country about the Isthmus, which is the counterpart of the depression still taking place along the coast of the Delta, in spite of the Nile deposit. The silting, however, did not cause the drying-up of the entire strait ; but left a series of lakes or salt marshes," such as I have spoken of above.
These salt marshes extending over Lower Egypt are not cultivated, but are still valuable for the pasturage of cattle, as luxuriant herbage grows here in abundance. The men who herded and attended to the raising of stock were a wild, lawless race,- according to Stvabo and other historians. They dwelt in the midst of the marshes, upon the margins of the lagunes, or brackish lakes, and lived in huts made from the reeds and grasses that grew there. They subsisted on the roots of the papyrus, lotus and various other esculent plants, together with the leguminuous class, such as the lentils, etc., which formed the principal portion of their diet. The raising of oxen for agricultural purposes unquestionably received careful attention, as both in plowing and in treadine out the "rain no other animal was ever used. This f;ict made the maintenance of cows and oxen, not alone a necessity for agricultural purposes, but as beasts of burden. In the representations upon the walls of many of the temples we see cows drawing the sled upon which the mummy was conveyed to the tomb, while the stones brought from the quarries of Mokattum for the purpose of repairing the Memphian temple are represented as being drawn by three pair of oxen. According to the ancient paintings and the hieroglyphic inscriptions, I should judge their domestic animals were the source of much care and solicitiide.
The ancient Egyptians also raised great quantities of sheep in the Delta, specially for their wool. Their flesh was eaten for food in Lower Egypt, but was not used in the Theban Nome, because the ram was held sacred to their great god of Thebas. We learn from Diodonls that the ewes were very prolific, bearing lambs and 3-ielding wool twice in the year.
Wool, when woven into cloth was prohibited for use as xuider- garments, to be worn next the body as is largely done at the present day. Outer garments might be made from this staple for the priests or even
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 167
all classes of people, but under no circumstances was it allowed to be worn or even carried into tbeir temples, nor used for tbe purpose of embalming or wrapping their mummied dead.
Goats were raised throughout the whole of Upper and Lower Bgypt in great quantities, but the Delta was the special place for raising stock of all kinds. After the flooding waters of the Nile had subsided the land over which it had flowed would produce a most luxuriant and abundant crop of herbage, making this part of Eg3'pt the best place for pas- turasfe and the raisinar of domestic animals.
In many of the tombs throughout the valley of the Nile we find paintings representing either the deceased or his overseer taking an inventory of the stock upon the farm, or belonging to him, or engaged in a tour of inspection for the purpose of numbering the cattle and domestic animals.
I could refer you to mau}^ of the tombs in both Upper and Lower Egypt where those engaged in this kind of work are depicted. There is one especial tomb at El-Kab, the ancient EileitJiyia, located about five hundred and ten miles above Cairo, on the East bank of the river. The painting is in the tomb of Paheri at this place, where either the deceased or his head-man is engaged in counting the domestic animals, attended hy servants and scribe, and the number recorded is as follows : cattle, one hundred and twenty-two ; sheep or rams, three hundred ; goats, one thousand two hundred ; and swine, one thousand five hundred. I have described this tomb in another chapter.
The paintings in many of these tombs are extremely interesting and will ampl}' repaj' those who visit them because they explain a great deal of the home life of these ancient people.
There are two very familiar objects to be seen throughout the valley of the Nile, and they are the Shaduf and Sakiyeh, two machines used by these people in raising water from the river, for irrigating the land, after the waters have subsided. The first is a very simple one, worked by a man, to raise the water from the stream below to irrigate the land above. The machine is composed of two posts sunk into the ground, standing about four or five feet high and about three or four feet apart. On top of these two posts is fastened a cross-bar, on which is suspended a sweep or pole, something like the well-sweep so common in many parts of this
168 EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
country for drawing water from a well. To one end of this sweep is fastened a lump of Nile mud, or clay, and to the other is hung a leathern bucket. The sweep hangs directly over an irrigating ditch whose edge is protected from the wash of the water and the rub of the bucket by a piece of matting. This machine is generally operated by a half-nude man. When I say half-nude I mean that he very often wears a calico cap or an old fez. He dips the bucket into the water beneath him by pulling down the sweep, and filling it, the weight at the other end of the pole assists him in raising the bucket to the desired height, so that he can pour its contents into the ditch or pool above. Sometimes when the river is low and the banks are high, as many as four of these machines are required to raise the water to the height of the irrigating ditch and direct it to where it is most needed.
The Sakiych is a more modern arrangement, generally operated by oxen, the controlling power of which is a boy, nearly always asleep. He is brought into this peculiar hypnotic condition by the continuous turning of the oxen and the shrill monotonous creak of the ever-revolving wheel. " The Sakiyeh " is a large wheel, to which is fastened a large number of ijative earthen jars, which fill with water as the v/heel revolves and empty themselves into a wooden box placed to receive the water and carry it off for irrigating the fields beyond. The wheel, as I have said, is turned by oxen, who go tramping round and round, accompanied by the continual shrieking noise of the ungreased bearings of the machine, which can be heard for quite a distance, while the boy sits perched up in a kind of basket, behind the oxen, nearly always asleep. These are two of the very old methods adopted by the ancient Egyptians to raise the water for irrigating the land. They also use another kind of machine called a Tabtii, which is a wheel with hollow fellies that lifts the water to the desired height. It is a very light machine and easily worked, but only used in certain places. There is another kind of a wheel in use in the Fayum. It is so arranged that the wheel is turned by the weight or force of the water itself
All through Egypt old-time methods are passing away, more espec- ially where the banks of the river are high, and larger quantities of water are desired. In such places steam pumps are used, which are run night and day at certain seasons of the year. In this way very large quantities
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 169
of water are obtained, for wliicti there will be ample need, if the crop be sugar cane, as it requires far more water than any other crop grown in the land of Egypt. The water when raised is distributed over the land by little ditches, or furrows, just as the ranchers do in the southern part of California.
The waters of the Nile contain a very rich compost of Nile mud which enables the farmers to raise successive crops of corn, beans, etc., without manuring the soil. But in the case of sugar cane and cotton a fertilizing agent is needed after every planting, on account of the exhaust- ive nature of these crops upon the soil, when the fellaheen spreads over the impoverished soil a dressing of pigeon's dung. This fertilizer is far more easily obtained than any other, because these people keep countless numbers of these birds for this express purpose. If the ruins of a city or temple should be in the vicinity they haul the nitrous soil to their fields and use it as a fertilizing agent, which also has been found of great bene- fit. The inundations not only prepare the fields for the crops but deposits at the same time, a rich fertilizer that causes them to grow in greater abundance than without it. The rising of the river also fills the streams and water courses with an abundance of fish of all kinds, which are very often caught by the fellaheen while engaged in directing the water over the land. When the children of Israel fled out of the land of bondage and were wandering in the desert, they not only sighed for the flesh-pots of Egypt, but for the fish as well.
Kenrick informs us in his " Ancient Egypt," page 71, ei seq., that " the mean quantity of water brought down by the Nile, in nor- mal years, as it depends on cosmical causes, probably continues the same from age to age, and the extent of land which it is capable of fertilizing by its overflow tends to increase, till its diffusion is stopped by the Arabian and Libyan hills. Long before the inundation reaches its maximum the dikes which close the communication between the canals and the Nile are opened and the water diffuses itself, first of all, over the lands which lie toward the Desert ; gradually as it rises it irrigates the nearer country, but the immediate banks of the river are seldom covered, and serve as a highway for the people while the inundation continues. In the Delta, where the slope is small, the whole country is laid under water during an extraordinary rise, and
ITO EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY.
boats take the place of the ordinary modes of communication. Euro- pean travellers commonly choose the winter and spring for a journey through Egypt, and therefore do not see the Nile at its height ; but those who have resided there through all seasons assure us that the description of Herodotus is still realized, the villages on their elevated sites rising out of a lake, like the Cyclades from the ^gean Sea.
" The trees which grew in Egypt were not numerous ; two species of palm, beside their fruit, furnished material from different parts of the tree for ever}' kind of work for which solid timber or tough fibre can be employed. The sycamore and various species of acacia also abounded, but no other trees of a large size were indigenous to the country. The products of the fields of Egypt were almost all the results of cultivation. Grain, herbs, and leguminous vegetables were produced in an abundance which no other country could rival ; but its native botany was scanty, the yearly renewal of the soil preventing the seeds which had fallen on the surface from vegetating, and culture exterminating all plants which can- not be made serviceable to man. The fragrance of flowers was wanting in its landscape, for those of Egypt have verj' little odor. The sandy desert which lies bej-ond the reach of the inundation has a scanty vegeta- tion of its own — stunted shrubs and herbs, which have generally an aro- matic smell."
The construction of the dams, referred to elsewhere, will regulate the flow of v.ater. The banks of the river and various canals will, under these new conditions, always be the highwa3'S for the people who live either in Upper or Lower Egypt, and instead of flooding the Delta and destroying villages, etc., it will be a thing of the past.
Ei)t Supreme ^rcftitect of tje Bniberse.
171
Blessed is the man who bath obtained
Che riches of the wisdom of 6od;
dretched is he who hath
H false opinion about things divine.
God may not be approached.
Nor can wc reach r>im with our eyes.
Or touch Rim with our hands.
No human bead is placed upon Ris limbs,
Nor branching arms ;
Re has no feet to carry Rim apace,
Nor other parts of men;
But Re is all pure mind, holy and infinite.
Darting with swift thought through the universe,
fn'om end to end.
— Empedocles.
172
EGYPT, THE CRADLE OF ANCIENT MASONRY. 1T3