part connected with the cult of the dead and that of the

fetish. As regards the first: —
When the dead are weary of staying in the bush, they come for one of their people whom they most affect. And the spirit will say to the man : " I am tired of dwelling in the bush, please to build for me in the town a little house as close as possible to your own." And he tells him to dance and sing too, and accordingly the man assembles the women at night to join in dance and song.
Then, next day, the people repair to the grave of the Obambo, or ghost, and make a rude idol, after which the bamboo bier, on which the body is conveyed to the grave, and some of the dust of the ground, are carried into a little hut erected near the house of the visited, and a white cloth is draped over the door.
It is a curious fact, which seems to show that these peo- ple have a legend something like the old Greek myth of Charon and the Styx, that in one of the songs chanted during this ceremony occurs the following line : " You are well dressed, but you have no canoe to carry you across to the other side."
Possession. Epileptic diseases, in almost all uncivilised countries, are assumed to be the result of demoniac pos- session. In Central Africa the sufferer is supposed to be possessed by Mbwiri, and he can be relieved only by the intervention of the medicine-man or fetish. In the middle of the street a hut is built for his accommodation, and there he resides until cured, or maddened, along with the priest and his disciples. There for ten days or a fortnight a continuous revel is held ; much eating and drinking at the expense of the patient's relatives, and unending dances
to the sound of flute and drum. For obvious reasons the fetish gives out that Mbwiri regards good living with aversion. The patient dances, usually shamming madness, until the epileptic attack comes on, with all its dreadful concomitants — the frenzied stare, the convulsed limbs, the gnashing teeth, and the foam-flecked lips. The man's actions at this period are not ascribed to himself, but to the demon which has control of him. When a cure has been effected, real or pretended, the patient builds a little fetish- house, avoids certain kinds of food, and performs certain duties. Sometimes the process terminates in the patient's insanity ; he has been known to run away to the bush, hide from all human beings, and live o,n the roots and berries of the forest.
•■ These fetish-men," says Read, " are priest doctors, like those of the ancient Germans. They have a profound knowledge of herbs, and also of human nature, for they always monopolise the real power in the state. But it is very doubtful whether they possess any secrets save that of extracting virtue and poison from plants. During the first trip which I made into the bush I sent for one of these doctors. At that time I was staying among the Shekani, who are celebrated for their fetish. He came attended by half-a-dozen disciples. He was a tall man dressed in white, with a girdle of leopard's skin, from which hung an iron bell, of the same shape as our sheep bells. He had two chalk marks over his eyes. I took some of my own hair, frizzled it with a burning glass, and gave it to him. * He popped it with alacrity into his little grass bag ; for white man's hair is fetish of the first order. Then I poured out some raspberry vinegar into a glass, drank a little of it first, country fashion, and offered it to him. telling him that it was blood from the brains of great doctors. Upon this he received it with great reverence, and dipping his fingers into it as if it was snap-dragon, sprinkled with it his forehead, both feet between the two first toes, and the ground behind his back. He then handed his glass to a disciple, who emptied it, and smacked his lips afterwards in a very secular manner. I then desired to see a little of his fetish. He drew on the ground with red chalk some hieroglyphics, among which I distinguished the.circle, the cross, and the crescent. He said that if I would give him a fine ' dush,' he would tell me all about it. But as he would not take anything in reason, and as I knew that he would tell me nothing of very greatimpor- tance in public, negotiations were suspended."
The fetish-man seldom finds a native disposed to question his claim of supernatural powers. He is not only a doctor and a priest — two capacities in which his influence is necessarily very powerful — he is also a witch-finder, and this is an office which invests him with a truly formidable authority. When a man of worth dies, his death is in- variably ascribed to witchcraft, and the aid of the fetish- man is invoked to discover the witch.
When a man is sick a long time, they call Ngembi, and if she cannot make him well, the fetish-man. He comes at night, in a white dress, with cock's feathers on his head, and having his bell and little glass. He calls two or three relations together into a room. He does not speak, but always looks in his glass. Then he tells them that the sickness is not of Mbwiri, nor of Obambo, nor of God, but that it comes from a witch. They say to him, " What shall we do ? " He goes out and says, " I have told you. I have no more to say." They give him a dollar's worth of cloth, and every night they gather together in the street, and they cry, ' ' I know that man who bewitched my brother. It is good for you to make him well." Then the witch makes him well. But if the man do not recover they call the bush doctor from the Shekani country. He sings in the language of the'bush. At night he goes into the street ;
African
Agrippa
all the people flock about him. With a tiger-cat skin in his hand, he walks to and fro, until, singing all the while, he lays the tiger-skin at the feet of the witch. At the con- clusion of his song the people seize the witch, and put him or her in chains, saying, " If you don't restore our brother to health, we will kill you."
African Builders' Architects : A mystical association founded by one, C. F. Koflen, a German official (1734-1797)- Its ostensible object was that of literary culture and intellect- ual study, but masonic qualifications were required of its members, and it attracted to itself some of the most distinguished Continental literati of the period. It had branches at Worms, Cologne and Paris. It is asserted that it was affiliated with the Society of Alethophilas or Lovers of Truth, which, indeed, is the name of one of its grades, the designations of which were as follow : Inferior Grades : (1) Apprentice of Egyptian Secrets ; (2) Initiate into Egyptian Secrets ; (3) Cosmopolitan ; (4) Christian Philosopher ; (5) Alethophilos. Higher Grades : (1) Esquire ; (2) Soldier ; (3) Knight — thus supplying Egypt- ian, Christian and Templar mysteries to the initiate. In 1806 there was published at Berlin a pamphlet entitled A Discovery Concerning the System of the Order of African Architects.
Ag : A red flower used by the natives of Hindustan to pro- pitiate their god, Sanee. It is made into a wreath with jasoon, also a red-coloured flower, which is hung round the neck of the god, who is of a congenial nature. This cere- mony is performed by night.
Agaberte : Daughter of a certain giant called Vagnoste, dwelling in Scandinavia. She was a powerful enchantress, and was rarely seen in her true shape. Sometimes she would take the form of an old woman, wrinkled and bent, and hardly able to move about. At one time she would appear weak and ill, and at another tall and strong, so that her head seemed to touch the clouds. These transforma- tions she effected without the smallest effort or trouble. People were so struck with her marvels that they believed her capable of overthrowing the mountains, tearing up the trees, drying up the rivers with the greatest of ease. They held that nothing less than a legion of demons must be at her command for the accomplishment of her magic feats. She seems to be like the Scottish Cailleach Bheur, a nature hag.
Agapis : This is a yellow stone, so called because it promotes love or charity. It cures stings and venomous bites, by being dipped in water and rubbed over the wound.
Agares : According to Wierius (q.v.) Grand Duke of the eastern region of Hades. He is shown under the form of a benevolent lord mounted on a crocodile, and carrying a hawk on his fist. The army he protects in battle is indeed fortunate, for he disperses their enemies, and puts new courage into the hearts of the cowards who fly before superior numbers. He distributes place and power, titles and prelacies, teaches all languages, and has other equally remarkable powers. Thirty-one legions are under his command.
Agate, or Achates : Good against the biting of scorpions or serpents, soothes the mind, drives away contagious air, and puts a stop to thunder and lightning. It is said also to dispose to solitude, promote eloquence, and secure the favour of princes. It gives victory over their enemies to those who wear it.
Agathion : A familiar spirit which appears only at mid-day. It takes the shape of a man or a beast, or even encloses itself in a talisman, bottle, or magic ring.
Agathodemon : A good demon, worshipped by the Egyptians under the shape of a serpent with a human head. The dragons or flying serpents venerated by the ancients were also called Agathodemons, or good genies.
Agla : A kabalistic word used by the rabbis for the exorcisms of the evil spirit. It is made up of the initial letters of the Hebrew words, Athah gabor leolam, Adonai, meaning, " Thou art powerful and eternal, Lord." Not only among the Jews was this word employed, but among the more superstitious Christians it was a favourite weapon with which to combat the evil one, even so late as the sixteenth century. It is also to be found in many books on magic, notably in the Enchiridion of Pope Leo III.
Aglaophotis : A kind of herb which grows in the deserts of Arabia, and which was much used by sorcerers for the evocation of demons. Other plants were then employed to retain the evil spirits so long as the sorcerer required them.
Agreda (Marie of) : A Spanish nun, who published about the middle of the seventeenth century a work entitled, The Mystic City of God, a Miracle of the All-powerful, the Abyss of Grace : Divine History of the Life of the Most Holy Virgin Mary, Mother of God, our Queen and Mistress, manifested in these last times by the Holy Virgin to the Sister Marie of Jesus, A bbess of the Convent of the Immaculate Conception of the town of Agreda, and written by that same Sister by order of her Superiors and Confessors.
This work, which was condemned by the Sorbonne, is a pretended account of many strange and miraculous hap- penings which befell the Virgin from her birth onwards, including a visit to Heaven in her early years, when she was given a guard of nine hundred angels.
Agrippa von Nettesheim, Henry Cornelius (1486-1535) : A German soldier and physician, and an adept in alchemy, astrology and magic. He was born at Cologne on the 14th of September, i486, and educated at the University of Cologne. While still a youth he served under Maximilian I. of Germany. In 1509 he lectured at the University of Dole, but a charge of heresy brought against him by a monk named Catilinet compelled him to leave Dole, and he re- sumed his former occupation of soldier. In the following year he was sent on a diplomatic mission to England, and on his return followed Maximilian to Italy, where he passed seven years, now serving one noble patron, now another. Thereafter he held a post at Metz, returned to Cologne, practised medicine at Geneva, and was appointed physician to Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I. ; but, on being given some task which he found irksome, he left the service of his patroness and denounced her bitterly. He then accepted a post offered him by Margaret, Duchess of Savoy, Regent of the Netherlands. On her death in 1830, he repaired to Cologne and Bonn, and thence to France, where he was arrested for some slighting mention of the Queen- Mother, Louise of Savoy. He was soon released, however, and died at Grenoble in 1535. Agrippa was a man of great talent and varied attainments. He was acquainted with eight languages, and was evidently a physician of no mean ability, as well as a soldier and a theologian. He had, moreover, many noble .patrons. Yet, notwithstanding these advantages, he never seemed to be free from mis- fortune ; persecution and financial difficulties dogged his footsteps, and in Brussels he suffered imprisonment for debt. He himself was in a measure responsible for his troubles. He was, in fact, an adept in the gentle art of making enemies, and the persecution of the monks with whom he frequently came into conflict was bitter and increasing. His principal works were a defence of magic, entitled De occulta philosophia, which was not published until 1 53 1, though it was written some twenty years earlier, and a satirical attack on the scientific pretensions of his day, De incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum et A rtium atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, also published at Antwerp in 1531. His other works included a treatise De Nobilitate el Praecellentia Feminu Sexus, dedicated to
Agrippa
Alain
Margaret of Burgundy out of gratitude for her patronage. His interest in alchemy and magic dated from an early period of his life, and gave rise to many tales of his occult powers. It was said that he was always accompanied by a familiar in the shape of a large black dog. On his death he renounced his magical works and addressed his familiar thus : ' ' Begone, wretched animal, the entire cause of my destruction ! " The animal fled from the room and straightway plunged into the Saom, where it perished. At the inns where he stayed, Agrippa paid his bills with money that" appeared genuine enough at the time, but which after- wards turned to worthless horn or shell, like the fairy money which turned to earth after sunset. He is said to have summoned Tully to pronounce his oration for Roscius, in the presence of John George, elector of Saxony, the Earl of Surrey, Erasmus, and other eminent people. Tully duly appeared, delivered his famous oration, and left his audience deeply moved. Agrippa had a magic glass, wherein it was possible to see objects distant in time or place. On one occasion Surrey saw therein his mistress, the beautiful Geraldine, lamenting the absence of her noble lover.
One other story concerning the magician is worthy of record. Once when about to leave home for a short time, he entrusted to his wife the key of his museum, warning her on no account to permit anyone to enter. But the curiosity of a boarder in their house prompted him to beg for the key, till at length the harrassed hostess gave it to him. The first thing that caught the student's attention was a book of spells, from which he began to read. A knock sounded on the door. The student took no notice, but went on reading, and the knock was repeated. A moment later a demon entered, demanding to know why he had been summoned. The student was too terrified to make reply, and the angry demon seized him by the throat and strangled him. At the same moment Agrippa entered, having returned unexpectedly from his journey. Fearing that he would be charged with the murder of the youth, he persuaded the demon to restore him to life for a little while, and walk him up and down the market place. The demon consented ; the people saw the student apparently alive and in good health, and when the demon allowed the semblance of life to leave the body, they thought the young man had died a natural death. However, an examination clearly showed that he had been strangled. The true state of affairs leaked out, and Agrippa was forced to flee for his life.
These fabrications of the popular imagination were probably encouraged rather than suppressed by Agrippa, who loved to surround his comparatively harmless pursuits of alchemy and astrology with an air of mystery calculated to inspire awe and terror in the minds of the ignorant. It is known that he had correspondents in all parts of the world, and that from their letters, which he received in his retirement, he gleaned the knowledge which he was popu- larly believed to obtain from his familiars. Ahazu-Demon : (The Seizer). Practically nothing is known of this Semitic demon unless it is the same ahazie told of in medical texts, where a man can be stricken by a disease bear- ing this name. Ahi : (See Devil.)
Ahrimanes : The name given to the Chief of the Cacodaemons, or fallen angels, by the Persians and Chaldeans. These Cacodaemons were believed to have been expelled from Heaven for their sins ; they endeavoured to settle down in various parts of the earth, but were always rej ected, and out of revenge they find their pleasure in injuring the inhabitants. Xenocritus thought that penance and self- mortification, though not agreeable to the gods, pacified the malice of the Cacodaemons. Ahrimanes and his
followers finally took up their abode in all the space between the earth and the fixed stars, and there established their domain, which is called Arhiman-abad. As Ahrimanes was the spirit of evil his counterpart in Persian dualism was Ormuzd, the creative and benevolent being. (See Persia.) Ainsarii : An Ishmaelite sect of the Assassins (q.v.) who continued to exist after the stronghold of that society was destroyed. They held secret meetings for receptions, and possessed signs, words, and a catechism. (See The Asian Mystery, Rev. C. L. Lyde.) Air Assisting Ghosts to become Visible : It was formerly believed by some authorities that a ghost was wrapped in air, by which means it became visible. Thus a spectre might appear wherever there was air.
Akasa, or Soniferous Ether : One of the five elementary principles of nature, mentioned in The Science of Breath, a Hindu Yoga. It is the first of these principles ; is given by " The Great Power," and out of it the others are created; These ethers may be likened to the five senses of man. In order to hear distinct sounds, the Hindu theosophist " concentrates " himself upon Akasa. .
Akathaso : Evil spirits inhabiting trees. (See Burma.)
Akhnim : A town of Middle Thebais, which at one time possessed the reputation of being the habitation of the greatest magicians. Paul Lucas, in his Second Voyage, speaks of the wonderful Serpent of Akhnim, which was worshipped by the Mussulmans as an angel, and by the Christians believed to be the demon Asmodeus.
Akiba : A Jewish rabbi of the first century, who, from being a simple shepherd, became a learned scholar, spurred by_ the hope of winning the hand of a young lady he greatly admired. The Jews say that he was taught by the elemen- tal spirits, that he was a conjurer, and that, in his best days, he had as many as 24,000 disciples. He is said to be the author of a famous work, entitled, Yetzirah (q.v., On the Creation), which is by some ascribed to Abraham, and even to Adam. It was first printed at Paris in 1552.
Aksakof, (Alexandre) : A Russian statesman, whose name stands high in the spiritualistic annals of his country. Born in 1832, he was educated at the Imperial Lyceum of St. Petersburg, and afterwards became Councillor of State to the Emperor of Russia. He made his first acquaintance with spiritualism through the writings of Swedenborg, some of which he afterwards translated. Later, he studied the works of other spiritualistic writers. He was instru- mental in bringing many mediums to Russia, and identified himself with Home, Slade, and other well-known mediums, and later with Eusapia Palladino. Mainly at the instance of M. Aksakof, a Russian Scientific Committee was ap- pointed in 1877 to enquire into spiritualism, but its enquiry was conducted in a very half-hearted manner. M. A ksakof was for many years compelled to publish his psychic works and j ournals in Germany and other countries, on account of the prohibition of the Russian Government. (See Russia.)
Al : Part of inscription on a pantacle which forms a frontis- piece to the grimoire doctrine. Along with other inscrip- tions, it denotes the name of God.
Alain of Lisle : It has been said by some writers that there were two men to whom was given the name of Alanus Insulensis, one of whom was Betnardine, Bishop of Auxerre, and author of a Commentary en the Prophecies of Merlin ; the other, that " Universal Doctor.'' whose brilliant career at the Paris University was followed by his withdrawal to a cloister, where he devoted himself entirely to the study of philosophy. Others again maintain that the Bishop of Auxerre and the " Universal Doctor " were one and the same. Even the date when they lived is very uncertain, being variously placed in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- turies. In the year 1600 a treatise on alchemy, entitled
Alamut
Albigerius
Dicta de Lapide Philosophico was published at Leyden, bearing on its title-page the name of Alanus Insulensis. It was thus ascribed to Bernardine, to the " Universal Doctor, " and, by still others, to a German named Alanus. Suppos- ing the two first-mentioned to be separate and distinct persons, we have nevertheless no proof that either was interested in alchemy ; and as for the third, there is no proof that he existed at all. On the other hand, we know that it was customary at that time to ascribe works of a very inferior nature to illustrious persons who had died, and were thus unable to deny them. The Dicta de Lapide Philosophico, a work of no great alchemistical value, on account of its vague and indefinite nature, may be, and probably is, a spurious work, wrongly ascribed to Alain. Alamut : A mountain in Persia. (See Assassins.) Alary (Francois) : A visionary, who had printed at Rouen in 1 701, The Prophecy of Count Bombasle, (Chevalier de la Rose-Croix), nephew of Paracelsus, (published in 1609 on the birth of Louis the Great.) Alastor : A cruel demon, who, according to Wierius, filled - the post of chief executioner to the monarch of Hades. The conception of him somewhat resembles that of Nemesis. Zoroaster is said to have called him " The Executioner." Others confound him with the destroying angel. Evil genies were formerly called Alastors. Plutarch says that Cicero, who bore a grudge against Augustus, conceived the plan of committing suicide on the emperor's hearth, and thus becoming his Alastor. Albertus Magnus : No fewer than twenty-one folio volumes are attributed to this alchemist, and though it is highly improbable that all of them are really his, the ascription in several cases resting on but slender evidence, those others which are incontestably from his pen, are sufficiently numerous to constitute him a surprisingly voluminous writer. It is noteworthy, moreover, that according to tradition, he was the inventor of the pistol and the cannon ; but, while it is unlikely that the credit is due to him for this, the mere fact that he was thus acknowledged indi- cates that his scientific skill was recognised by a few, if only a few, of the men Of his own time.
Albertus was born at Larvingen, on the Danube, in the year 1205, and the term Magnus, which is usually applied to him, is not the result of his reputation, but is the Latin equivalent of his family name, de Groot. Like many another man destined to become famous, he was distinctly stupid as a boy, but from the outset he showed a predilection for religion, and so it came about that one night the blessed Virgin appeared to him, whereupon his intellect suddenly became metamorphosed, acquiring extraordinary vitality. Albertus therefore decided that he must show his gratitude to the Madonna by espousing holy orders, and eventually he won eminence in the clerical profession, and was made Bishop of Ratisbon ; but he held this office for only a little while, resigning it that he might give his entire time to scientific researches. Thenceforth, until his death, the exact date whereof is uncertain, he lived chiefly at a pleasant retreat in Cologne ; and it is reported that here his mental vigour gradually forsook him, being replaced by the dullness which characterised him as a youth.
Albertus was repeatedly charged by some of his un- friendly contemporaries with holding communications with the devil, and practising the craft of magic ; while apropos of his reputed leanings in this particular, a curious story is recounted in an early history of the University of Pans. The alchemist, it seems, had invited some friends to his house at Cologne, among them being William, Count of Holland, and when the guests arrived they were amazed to find that, though the season was mid-winter and the ground was covered with snow, they were expected to partake of a repast outside in the garden. Great chagrin
was manifested by everybody, while some even declared themselves insulted ; but their host bade them be seated, assuring them that all would be well. They continued to be dubious withal, yet they took their places, and hardly had they began to eat and drink ere their annoyance vanished, for lo ! the snow around them melted away, the sun shone brightly, the birds sang, and summer ap- peared to be reigning indeed.
Michael Maier, the author of Museum Chimicum and numerous other alchemistic works, declares that Albertus succeeded in evolving the philosopher's stone, and that ere his death he handed it over to his distinguished pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas, who subsequently destroyed the precious article, suspecting it to be a contrivance of the devil. The alleged discoverer himself says nothing on this subject, but, in his De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus, he tells how he had personally tested some gold which had been manufactured by an alchemist, and which resisted many searching fusions. And, be this story true or not, Albertus was certainly an able scientist, while it is clear that his learning ultimately gained wide recognition, for a collected edition of his vast writings was issued at Leyden so late as 1653.
Albigenses : A sect which originated in the south of France in the twelfth century. They were so called from one of their territorial centres, that of Albi. It is probable that their heresy came originally from Eastern Europe, and they were often designated Bulgarians, and undoubt- edly kept up intercourse with- certain secretaries of Thrace, the Bogomils ; and they are sometimes connected with the Paulicians. It is difficult to form any exact idea of their doctrines, as Albigensian texts are rare, and contain little concerning their ethics, but we know that they were strongly opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, and protested against the corruption of its clergy. But it is not as a religious body that we have to deal with the Albigenses here, but to consider whether or not their cult possessed any occult significance. It has been claimed by their opponents that they admitted two fundamental principles, good and bad, saying that God had produced Lucifer from Himself ; that indeed Lucifer was the son of God who revolted against Him ; that he had carried with him a rebellious party of angels, who were driven from Heaven along with him ; that Lucifer in his exile had created this world with its inhabitants, where he reigned, and where all was evil. It is alleged that they further believed that God for the re-establishment of order had produced a second son, who was Jesus Christ. Further- more the Catholic writers on the Albigenses charged them with believing that the souls of men were demons lodged in mortal bodies in punishment of their crimes.
All this is, of course, mere tradition, and we may be sure that the dislike of the A Ibigenses for the irregularities then current in the Roman Church, brought such charges on their heads. They were indeed the lineal ancestors of Protestantism. A crusade was brought against them by- Pope Innocent III., and wholesale massacres took place. The Inquisition was also let loose upon them, and they were driven to hide in the forests and among the mountains, where, like the Covenanters of Scotland, they held sur- reptitious meetings. The Inquisition terrorised the district in which they had dwelt so thoroughly that the very name of Albigenses was practically blotted out, and by the year 1330, the records of the Holy Office show no further writs issued against the heretics.
Albigerius : A Carthaginian soothsayer mentioned by St. Augustine. He would fall into strange ecstacies in which his soul, separated from his body, would travel abroad and find out what was taking place in distant parts. He could read people's inmost thoughts, and discover any-
Albumazar
Alchemy
thing he wished to learn. These wonders were ascribed to the agency of the Devil. St. Augustine also speaks of another case, in which the possessed man was ill of a fever. Though not in a trance, but wide awake, he saw the priest who was coming to visit him while he was yet six leagues away, and told the company assembled round his couch the exact moment when the good man would arrive. Albumazar : An astrologer of the ninth century, born in Korassan, known principally by his astrological treatise, entitled, Thousands of Years, in which he declares that the world could only have been created when the seven planets were in conjunction in the first degree of the ram, and that the end of the world would take place when these seven planets (the number has now risen to twelve) will be together in the last degree of the fish. Several of Albuma- zar's treatises on astrology have been printed in Germany, of which one was his Tractus Florum Astrologies, Augsburg, 1488. (See Astrology.) Alcahest : The universal solvent. (See Alchemy.) Alchemist, A Modern Egyptian : A correspondent writing to the Liverpool Post of Saturday, November 28th, 1907, gives an interesting description of a veritable Egyptian alchemist whom he had encountered in Cairo not long before, as follows : "I was not slow in seizing an opportun- ity of making the acquaintance of the real alchemist living in Cairo, which the winds of chance had blown in my dir- ection. He received me in his private house in the native quarter, and I was delighted to observe that the appearance of the man was in every way in keeping with my notions of what an alchemist should be. Clad in the flowing robes of a graduate of Al Azhar, his long grey beard giving him a truly venerable aspect, the sage by the eager, far-away expression of his eyes, betrayed the mind of the dreamer, of the man lost to the meaner comforts of the world in his devotion to the secret mysteries of the universe. After the customary salaams, the learned man informed me that he was seeking three things — the philosopher's stone, at whose touch all metal should become gold — the elixir of life, and the universal solvent which would dissolve all substances as water dissolves sugar ; the last, he assured me, he had indeed discovered a short time since. I was well aware of the reluctance of the mediaeval alchemists to divulge their secrets, believing as they did Jhat the possession of them by the vulgar would bring about ruin of states and the fall of divinely constituted princes ; and I feared that the reluctance of the modern alchemist to divulge any secrets to a stranger and a foreigner would be no less. However, I drew from my pocket Sir William Crookcs's spinthariscope — a small box containing a particle of radium highly magnified — and showed it to the sheikh. When he applied it to his eye and beheld the wonderful phenomenon of this dark speck flashing out its fiery needles on all sides, he was lost in wonder, and when I assured him that it would retain this property for a thousand years, he hailed me as a fellow-worker, and as one who had indeed penetrated into the secrets of the world. His reticence disappeared at once, and he began to tell me the aims and methods of alchemical research, which were indeed the same as those of the ancient alchemists of yore. His universal solvent he would not show me, but assured me of its efficacy. I asked him in what he kept it if it dissolved all things. He replied ' In wax,' this being the one ex- ception. I suspected that he had found some hydro- fluoric acid, which dissolves glass, and so has to be kept in wax bottles, but said nothing to dispel his illusion.
" The next day I was granted the unusual privilege of inspecting the sheikh's laboratory, and duly presented myself at the appointed time. My highest expectations were fulfilled ; everything was exactly what an alchemist's
laboratory should be. Yes, there was the sage, surrounded by his retorts, alembics, crucibles, furnace, and bellows, and, best of all, supported by familiars of gnome-like appearance, squatting on the ground, one blowing the fire (a task to be performed daily for six hours continuously), one pounding substances in a mortar, and another seem- ingly engaged in doing odd jobs. Involuntarily my eyes sought the pentacle inscribed with the mystic word ' Abra- cadabra,' but here I was disappointed, for the black arts had no place in this laboratory. One of the familiars had been on a voyage of discovery to London, where he bought a few alchemical materials ; another had explored Spain and Morocco, without finding any alchemists, and the third had indeed found alchemists in Algeria, though they had steadily guarded their secrets. After satisfying my curiosity in a general way, I asked the sage to explain the principles of his researches and to tell me on what his theories were based. I was delighted to find that his ideas were precisely those of the mediaeval alchemists namely, that all metals are debased forms of the original gold, which is the only pure, non-composite metal ; all nature strives to return to its original purity, and all metals would return to gold if they could ; nature. is simple and not complex, and works upon one principle, namely, that of sexual reproduction. It was not easy, as will readily be believed, to follow the mystical explanations of the sheikh. Air was referred to by him as the ' vulture,' fire as the ' scorpion,' water as the ' serpent,' and earth as 'calacant ' ; and only after considerable cross-questioning and confusion of mind was I able to disentangle his argu- ments. Finding his notions so entirely mediaeval, I was anxious to discover whether he was familiar with the phlogistic theory of the seventeenth century. The alchem- ists of old had noticed that the earthy matter which remains when a metal is calcined is heavier than the metal itself, and they explained this by the hypothesis, that the metal contained a spirit known as ' phlogiston,' which becomes visible when it escapes from the metal or com- bustible substance in the form of flame ; thus the presence of the phlogiston lightened the body just as gas does, and on its being expelled, the body gained weight. I accord- ingly asked the chemist whether he had found that iron gains weight when it rusts, an experiment he had ample means of making. But no, he had not yet reached the seventeenth century ; he had not observed the fact, but was none the less ready with his answer ; the rust of iron was an impurity proceeding from within, and which did not effect the weight of the body in that way. He declared that a few days would bring the realisation of his hopes, and that he would shortly send me a sample of the philo- sopher's stone and of the divine elixir ; but although his promise was made some weeks since, I have not yet seen the fateful discoveries." Alchemy : The science by aid of which the chemical philo- sophers of mediaeval times attempted to transmute the baser metals into gold and silver. There is considerable divergence of opinion as to the etymology of the word, but it would seem to be derived from the Arabic a?=the, and Aii»ya=chemistry, which in turn derives from late Greek chemeia=chemistTy , from chumeia a mingling, or cheein " to pour out," or " mix," Aryan root ghu, td pour, whence the word " gush." Mr. A. Wailis Budge in his Egyptian Magic, however, states that it is possible that it may be derived from the Egyptian word khemeia, that is to say " the preparation of the black ore," or " powder," which was regarded as the active principle in the transmutation of metals. To this name the Arabs affixed the article al, thus giving al-khemeia, or alchemy. History of Alchemy. — From an early period the Egypt- ians possessed the reputation of being skilful workers in.
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metals, and, according to Greek writers, they were con- versant with their transmutation, employing quicksilver in the process of separating gold and silver from the native matrix. The resulting oxide was supposed to possess marvellous powers, and it was thought that there resided within it the individualities of the various metals — that in it their various substances were incorporated. This black powder was mystically identified with the under- world form of the god Osiris, and consequently was credited with magical properties. Thus there grew up in Egypt the belief that magical powers existed in fluxes and alloys. Probably such a belief existed throughout Europe in con- nection with the bronze-working castes of its several races. (See Shelta Thari.) It was probably in the Byzantium of the fourth century, however, that alchemical scienee received embryonic form. There is little doubt that Egyptian tradition, filtering through Alexandrian Hellenic sources was the foundation upon which the infant science was built, and this is borne out by the circumstance that the art was attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (q.v.) and supposed to be contained in its entirety in his works. The Arabs, after their conquest of Egypt in the seventh century, carried on the researches of the Alexandrian school, and through their instrumentality the art was brought to Morocco and thus in the eighth century to Spain, where it flourished exceedingly. Indeed, Spain from the ninth to the eleventh century became the reposi- tory of alchemical science, and the colleges of Seville, Cordova, and Granada were the centres from which this science radiated throughout Europe. The first practical alchemist may be said to have been the Arabian Geber (q.v.), who flourished 720-750. From his Summa Perfec- tionis, we may be justified in assuming that alchemical science was already matured in bis day, and that he drew his inspiration from a still older unbroken line of adepts. He was followed by Avicenna, Mesna and Rhasis (q.v.), and in France by Alain of Lisle, Arnold de Villanova and Jean de Meung (q.v.) the troubadour ; in England by Roger Bac 11 and, in Spain itself by Raymond Lully. Later, in French alchemy the most illustrious names are those of Flamel (b. ca. 1330), and Bernard Trevisan (b. ca. 1406) after which the centre of interest changes to Germany and in some measure to England, in which countries Paracelsus, Khunrath (ca. 1560), Maier (ca. 1568), Bohme, Van Helmont, the Brabanter (1553), Ripley, Norton, Dalton, Charnock, and Fludd kept the alchemical flame burning brightly. It is surprising how little altera- tion we find throughout the period between the seventh and the seventeenth centuries, the heyday of alchemy, in the theory and practice of the art. The same sentiments and processes are found expressed in the later alchemical authorities as in the earliest, and a wonderful unanimity as regards the basic canons of the great art is evinced by the hermetic students of all time. On the introduction of chemistry as a practical art, alchemical science fell into desuetude and disrepute, owing chiefly to the number of charlatans practising it, and by the beginning of the eighteenth century, as a school, it may be said to have become defunct. Here and there, however, a solitary student of the art lingered, and the department of this article on " Modern Alchemy " will demonstrate that the science has to a great extent revived during modern times, although it has never been quite extinct.
The Quests of Alchemy. The grand objects of alchemy were (1) the discovery of a process by which the baser metals might be transmuted into gold and silver ; (2), the discovery of an elixir by which life might be prolonged indefinitely ; and there may perhaps be added (3), the manufacture of an artificial process of human life. (For the latter see "Horaunculus.")
The Theory and Philosophy of Alchemy. The first ob- jects were to be achieved as follows : The transmutation of metals was to be accomplished by a powder, stone; or elixir often called the Philosopher's Stone, the application of which would effect the transmutation of the baser metals into gold or silver, depending upon the length of time of its application. Basing their conclusions on a profound examination of natural processes and research into the secrets of nature, the alchemists arrived at the axiom that nature was divided philosophically into four principal regions, the dry, the moist, the warm, the cold, whence all that exists must be derived. Nature is also divisible into the male and the female. She is the divine breath, the central fire, invisible yet ever active, and is typified by sulphur, which is the mercury of the sages, which slowly fructifies under the genial warmth of nature. The alchemist must be ingenuous, of a truthful disposition, and gifted with patience and prudence, following nature in every alchemical performance. He must recollect that like draws to like, and must know how to obtain the seed of metals, which is produced by the four elements through the will of the Supreme Being and the Imagination of Nature. We are told that the original matter of metals is double in its essence, being a dry heat combined with a warm moisture, and that air is water coagulated by fire, capable of producing a universal dissolvent. These terms the neophyte must be cautious of interpreting in their literal sense. Great confusion exists in alchemical nomen- clature, and the gibberish employed by the scores of charlatans who in later times pretended to a knowledge of alchemical matters did not tend to make things any more clear. The beginner must also acquire a thorough knowledge of the manner in which metals grow in the bowels of the earth. These are engendered by sulphur, which is male, and mercury, which is female, and the crux of alchemy is to obtain their seed — a process which the alchemistical philosophers have not described with any degree of clarity. The physical theory of transmutation is based on the composite character of metals, and on the presumed existence of a substance which, applied to matter, exalts and perfects it. This, Eugenius Philale- thes and others call " The Light." The elements of all metals are similar, differing only in purity and pro- portion. The entire trend of the metallic kingdom is towards the natural manufacture of gold, and the pro- duction of the baser metals is only accidental as the result of an unfavourable environment. The Philosopher's Stone is the combination of the male and female seeds which beget gold. The composition of these is so veiled by symbolism as to make their identification a matter of impossibility. Waite, summarising the alchemical process once the secret of the stone is unveiled, says :
" Given the matter of the stone and also the necessary vessel, the processes which must be then undertaken to accomplish the magnum opus are described with moderate perspicuity. There is the calcination or purgation of the stone, in which kind is worked with kind for the space of a philosophical year. There is dissolution which prepares the way for congelation, and which is performed during the black state of the mysterious matter. It is accom- plished by water which does not wet the hand. There is the separation of the subtle and the gross, which is to be performed by means of heat. In the conjunction which follows, the elements are duly and scrupulously combined. Putrefaction afterwards takes place,
' Without which pole no seed may multiply.' " Then, in the subsequent congelation the white colour appears, which is one of the signs of success. It becomes more pronounced in cibation. In sublimation the body is spiritualised, the spirit made corporeal, and again a more
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glittering whiteness is apparent. Fermentation afterwards fixes together the alchemical earth and water, and causes the mystic medicine to flow like wax. The matter is then augmented with the alchemical spirit of life, and the exaltation of the philosophic earth is accomplished by the natural rectification of its elements. When these pro- cesses have been successfully completed, the mystic stone will have passed through three chief stages characterised by different colours, black, white, and red, after which it is capable of infinite multication, and when projected on mercury, it will absolutely transmute it, the resulting gold bearing every test. The base metals made use of must be purified to insure the success of the operation. The process for the manufacture of silver is essentially similar, but the resources of the matter are not carried to so high a degree.
" According to the Commentary on the Ancient War of the Knights the transmutations performed by the perfect stone are so absolute that no trace remains of the original metal. It cannot, however, destroy gold, nor exalt it into a more perfect metallic substance ; it, therefore, transmutes it into a medicine a thousand times superior to any virtues which can be extracted from it in its vulgar state. This medicine becomes a most potent agent in the exaltation of base metals."
There are not wanting authorities who deny that the transmutation of metals was the grand object of alchemy, and who infer from the alchemistical writings that the end of the art was the spiritual regeneration of man. Mrs. Atwood, author of A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery, and an American writer named Hitchcock are perhaps the chief protagonists of the belief that by spiritual processes akin to those of the chemical processes of alchemy, the soul of man may be purified and exalted. But both commit the radical error of stating that the alchemical writers did not aver that the transmutation of base metal into gold was their grand end. None of the passages they quote, is inconsistent with the physical object of alchemy, and in a work, The Marrow of Alchemy, stated to be by Eugenius Philalethes, it is laid down, that the real quest is for gold. It is constantly impressed upon the reader, however, in the perusal of esteemed alchemical works, that only- those, who are instructed by God can achieve the grand secret. Others, again, state that a tyro may possibly stumble upon it, but that unless he is guided by an adept he has small chance of achieving the grand arcanum. It will be obvious to the tyro, however, that nothing can ever be achieved by trusting to the alle- gories of the adepts or the many charlatans who crowded the ranks of the art. Gold may have been made, or it may not, but the truth or fallacy of the alchemical method lies with modern chemistry. The transcendental view of alchemy, however, is rapidly gaining ground, and pro- bably originated in the comprehensive nature of the Hermetic theory and the consciousness in the alchemical mind that what might with success be applied to nature could also be applied to man with similar results. Says Mr. Waite : " The gold of the philosopher is not a metal, on the other hand, man is a being who possesses within himself the seeds of a perfection which he has never realised, and that he therefore corresponds to those metals which the Hermetic theory supposes to be capable of develop- ment. It has been constantly advanced that the con- version of lead into gold was only the assumed object of alchemy, and that it was in reality in search of a process for developing the latent possibilities in the subject man." At the same time, it must be admitted that the cryptic character of alchemical language was probably occasioned by a fear on the part of the alchemical mystic that he might lay himself open through his magical opinions to the rigours of the law.
The Elixir of Life has been specially treated elsewhere.
Records of Alleged Actual Transmutation. Several records of alleged transmutations of base metals into gold are in existence. These were achieved by Nicholas Flamel, Van Helmont, Martini, Richthausen, and Sethon. For a detailed account of the methods employed the reader is referred to the several articles on these hermetists. In nearly every case the transmuting element was a mysterious powder or the " Philosophers' Stone."
Modern Alchemy. That alchemy has been studied in modern times there can be no doubt. M. Figuier in his L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes, dealing with the subject of modern alchemy, as expressed by the initiates of the first half of the nineteenth century, states that many French alchemists of his time regarded the discoveries of modern science as merely so many evidences of the truth of the doctrines they embraced. Throughout Europe, he says, the positive alchemical doctrine had many adherents at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth. Thus a " vast association of alchemists," founded in Westphalia in 1 790, continued to flourish in the year 1819, under the name of the " Hermetic Society." In 1837, an alchemist of Thuringia presented to the Society Industrielle of Weimar a tincture which he averred would effect metallic transmutation. About the same time several French journals announced a public course of lectures on hermetic philosophy by a professor of the University of Munich. He further states that many Hanoverian and Bavarian families pursued in common the search for the grand arcanum. Paris, however, was regarded as the alchemistical Mecca. There dwelt many theoretical alchemists and " empirical adepts." The first pursued the arcanum through the medium of books, the others engaged in practical efforts to effect transmutation.